Key Questions to Study

6.1. The essence of international scientific and technological exchange and its forms.

6.2. Main forms and channels of technology transfer.

6.3. Types and features of trade in engineering services.

The essence of international scientific and technological exchange and its forms

A new stage of scientific and technological revolution, which began in the 50s. XX century, provided a revolution in the structure of the international division of labor and led to the emergence of a new form of international economic relations - international scientific and technological exchange.

International scientific and technological exchange- this is a set of economic relations between foreign counterparties regarding the use of the results of scientific and technical activities that have scientific and practical value.

The process of international technology transfer includes:

a) selection and acquisition of technology;

b) adaptation and development of acquired technology;

c) development of local capabilities to improve technology, taking into account the needs of the national economy.

International legal interpretation of the concept of “technology”: - a set of design solutions, methods and processes for the production of goods and the provision of services;

Materialized or embodied technology, for example, in the form of equipment, machinery, etc.

Stages of development international technological exchange:

1) the use of new technologies only at their own enterprises and the sale of new products on the market (before the industrial revolution of the 18th century);

2) the use of new technologies not only at their own enterprises, but also their sale to other manufacturers in conditions of complicated financial, production and market situations (XVIII-XIX centuries);

3) international technology exchange increases to volumes that made it possible to distinguish it as a separate form of international economic relations, the emergence of a global technology market (mid-20th century).

Causes, which led to the rapid development of international technology exchange:

1) at the country level - this is the uneven development of different countries of the world in the scientific and technical field, associated primarily with the insufficient amount of R&D expenditures in most countries and with the difference in the purposes of their use:

For developed countries, the acquisition of technology contributes to the modernization of the production apparatus in various industries;

For developing countries, this is a means of overcoming technological backwardness and creating their own industry focused on meeting domestic needs;

2) at the organization (company) level, the acquisition of technology contributes to:

Solving specific economic, scientific and technical problems;

Overcoming the limited scientific and technical base of an individual enterprise, lack of production capacity and other resources;

Obtaining new strategic development opportunities. Economic feasibility of technology export is determined by the fact that:

1) the sale of technology is a source of income;

2) technology transfer abroad is a form of struggle for the product market;

3) this is a way to circumvent the problems of exporting the product in question;

4) this is a way of establishing control over a foreign company through such terms of a licensing agreement as production volume, profit sharing, and the like;

5) provision of technology - a way of providing access to other innovations for “cross-licensing”;

6) this is an opportunity to more effectively improve the licensed object with the participation of the buyer.

Economic feasibility of importing technology is determined by the fact that technology import is:

1) access to innovations of a high technical level;

2) a means of saving R&D costs;

3) a means of reducing foreign exchange costs for commodity imports and ensuring the use of national capital and labor;

4) a condition for expanding the export of products produced using imported technologies;

5) a guarantee of mastering a product or process with the help of a seller, who, as a rule, provides technical adaptation of the innovation.

Subjects of the global technology market are:

States;

Universities;

Individuals (scientists and specialists). The objects of the global technology market are:

Results of intellectual activity in embodied form (units, equipment, tools, technological lines, etc.);

The results of intellectual activity in non-subject form (technical documentation, knowledge, experience, etc.).

Global technology market segments:

1. Patent and license market.

2. Market for scientific and technological products.

3. High-tech capital market.

4. Market for scientific and technical specialists.

The leading role in the global technology market is played by developed countries: Great Britain, Germany, USA, France and Japan, which control more than 60% of this market. However, the United States and the European Union occupy only 7th and 11th positions in the planetary ranking in terms of the share of R&D expenditures in GDP, respectively, which is unlikely to ensure the maintenance of their current positions in the global technology market in the future.

Rice. 6.1.

Features of modern international technology exchange:

1. The global technology market contributes to the intellectualization of the international economy as a whole.

2. The main subjects of the technology market at the international level are TNCs, which ensure the sharing of R&D results between parent and subsidiary companies.

3. TNCs themselves concentrate research in their own hands, which contributes to the monopolization of the international technology market.

4. The strategy of behavior of TNCs in the global technology market for independent entities (countries and companies) is determined by the life cycle of the technology:

Stage I - preference is given to the sale of finished products in which new ideas are implemented;

Stage II - technological exchange is accompanied or carried out in the form of foreign direct investment (FP);

Stage III - pure licensing, that is, the acquisition of ownership rights to the technology and its use.

5. The leading role is played by intra-company international technology exchange (Fig. 6.2).

6. The technological gap exists between different groups of countries and determines the multi-stage structure of the global technology market:

a) high technologies (unique and progressive) are objects of exchange between developed countries;

Rice. 6.2.

b) low (morally obsolete) and medium (traditional) technologies of developed countries are new for developing countries and countries with economies in transition.

World economic crisis 2007-2010 She highlighted the problems of mono-oriented development of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Economic growth in previous years was largely due to the export of low-tech products, the demand for which is price inelastic. So, a slight reduction in demand for products from the mining, metallurgical, oil, agricultural, and chemical industries led to a significant drop in prices, a significant reduction in export earnings and a deep crisis in national economies. The need for accelerated development of knowledge-intensive industries and the formation of our own corporations focused on the production of high-tech products for final demand is becoming urgent. Structural restructuring of national economies can only be achieved through the implementation of a set of measures of state support for the creation of our own high technologies and their import.

The regulatory framework for the functioning of international technology exchange is provided by:

International Code of Conduct on Technology Transfer;

WTO Agreement on Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights;

Committee on Technology Transfer of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development;

World Intellectual Property Organization;

Export Control Coordination Committee;

Meeting of security and technology specialists.

Product life cycle model in international trade.

Theories of the impact of technology on international trade.

INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE

Topic 7

In most cases, technology is one of the developed factors of production, which have a greater ability for international mobility compared to the basic ones. The development of technology is based on technical progress.

Among the many theories of the impact of technology on international trade, the following stand out:

· model of technical progress;

· technology gap model;

Model of technological progress(John Hicks, 1904-1989): Technical progress is divided into neutral, labor-saving and capital-saving. With neutral technical progress, the amount of labor and capital per unit of goods produced decreases. With labor-saving technical progress, capital replaces labor. Capital-saving progress increases labor productivity.

Almost all theories that consider technology as a factor of production explain, using differences in the endowment of technology, international trade in goods produced on its basis. Many theories explain how changing technology affects international trade. One of them - technology gap model (Michael Posner, 1961). According to this model, the development of a new technology gives countries a temporary monopoly in the production and export of the product based on it.

The product life cycle model in international trade assumes that some countries specialize in the production and export of technologically new goods, while others specialize in the production of established goods. According to the theory, a product goes through five stages of life in international trade:

stage 1 – new product stage;

stage 2 – product growth stage;

stage 3 - stage of product maturity;

stage 4 – stage of decline in production of goods;

stage 5 – the stage of cessation of domestic production of goods.

The development of international technological exchange is due to significant differences in the technical level of individual countries. On the other hand, knowledge and technology in backward countries must develop in the direction in which they develop in advanced countries, since the world economy as a technical and economic category is based on machine production, regardless of the level of development of a particular national economy. Thus, even if there is an autarkic model of the economy of a particular country, technical thought is still developing in the same direction as in more developed countries.

However, more often technically backward countries develop as a result of acquiring new knowledge and technologies from outside. High rates of scientific and technological progress in the second half of the twentieth century. have led to the fact that over the past decades, international trade has been characterized by the involvement of a special product in trade turnover - scientific and technical achievements, i.e. active technological exchange is taking place. The concept of international technological exchange, as a rule, is interpreted in two ways: in a broad sense, it means the penetration of any scientific and technical knowledge and the exchange of production experience between countries, and in a narrow sense, it means the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge and experience related to the reproduction of specific technological processes.

Technologies- a complex of scientific and technical knowledge, including three groups of technologies: product technology, process technology and management technology.

International technology transfer is the interstate movement of scientific and technical knowledge on a commercial and non-commercial basis.

Technology is one of the developed factors of production that have great international mobility.

Technology transfer stages:

1. Selection and acquisition of technology.

2. Mastery and adaptation.

3. Use and improvement.

Technology transfer channels:

1. Foreign trade.

2. In-house.

3. Intercompany.

All four spheres of human activity are widely involved in international technological exchange: science, technology, production and management.

In most countries, new technology is protected by legal instruments: patents, licenses, copyright, trademark.

Patent- a certificate issued by the competent government agency to the inventor and certifying his monopoly right to use this invention.

License– permission given by the owner of a technology (licensor), whether protected by a patent or not, to an interested party (licensee) to use this technology for a certain time and for a certain fee.

Copyright(reproduction right) – the exclusive right of the author of a literary, audio or video work to display and reproduce his work.

Trademark– a symbol of a certain organization, which is used to individualize the manufacturer of a product and which cannot be used by other organizations without official permission.

Technologies are transferred both commercially and non-commercially. Technological exchange in a broad sense is carried out, as a rule, in non-commercial forms:

Scientific and technical publications;

Holding exhibitions, fairs, symposiums;

Exchange of delegations and meetings of scientists and engineers;

Migration of specialists;

Training of undergraduate and graduate students;

Activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology, etc.

Technological exchange in a narrow sense is carried out, as a rule, in commercial forms:

Transfer of rights to use inventions (patents, know-how, registered trademarks, industrial designs), technical documentation under the terms of licensing agreements;

Supply of machines and various industrial equipment;

Providing technical assistance;

Engineering services;

Export of complete equipment;

Training and internship of specialists;

Management contracts;

Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation, etc.

The transfer of technology in commercial forms implies that the technology is a specific commodity. The buyer of a new technology receives at his disposal scientific and technical developments and/or created production and technological processes. The use of such developments and processes as elements of productive capital makes it possible to produce commercial products that have increased competitiveness and receive additional profits over a more or less long period due to their uniqueness or lower production costs per unit of finished product.

The increased competitiveness of products produced using a new technology is inversely related to the scale of distribution (availability) of this technology. Additional profits disappear as soon as technical improvements become the property of the majority of enterprises in this industry or an even more advanced technology appears. The higher the degree of monopolization of scientific and technical knowledge and production and management experience, the stronger the position of the owner of the technology in the product market. Thus, it is quite understandable that countries and individual firms that have achieved a high technical level want to maintain their monopoly on new technologies.

At the same time, technology as a commodity usually has a very high cost, determined by the large costs of R&D and their implementation. The transfer of this cost to the final product occurs gradually, after huge costs have already been incurred. The owners of a new technology are interested in reimbursing the costs incurred, which can be achieved either by expanding their own production of goods based on it, or by selling this technology before it becomes obsolete. All this pushes the owner of the new technology to use it as much as possible, both in his own production and by selling similar goods to other manufacturers.

Technologies are transferred to two main groups of buyers:

Foreign branches or subsidiaries of TNCs;

Independent companies.

New technologies are mainly provided by TNCs to their branches or subsidiaries. So, for example, in the 90s. This group of buyers accounted for about 4/5 of the total technology sales of American TNCs. This is due to the fact that as a result of technology transfer to affiliates:

The contradiction between the need for widespread use of new technology in order to obtain maximum profit and the threat of loss of monopoly ownership of scientific and technical achievements that arises in connection with this is largely overcome:

Specific R&D costs are reduced and at the same time, leaks of classified information outside TNCs are eliminated;

The profits of parent companies increase, since in many countries payments for new technology received are exempt from taxation.

Host countries often restrict imports of goods and sometimes foreign direct investment in various forms. When selling technology, it provides an opportunity to penetrate the closed market of another country, since following the technology, goods and services enter the host country

Selling technology to independent companies means losing the monopoly right to use it. In addition, a technology buyer with significant scientific and technical potential may subsequently become a serious competitor. By selling technology to independent companies, sellers seek to obtain equity, combine technology transfer with the supply of their equipment, and compensate for the loss of a technology monopoly by maximizing the proceeds from the sale. Most often, technologies from those industries that have a low share of R&D expenses (metallurgy, metalworking, textile and clothing industry, etc.) are sold to independent firms. In these industries, the monopoly on technical improvement cannot be maintained for long, since innovations are easily reproducible. The owner of a new technology, without waiting for the improvements to be copied by foreign competitors, forces its sale not only to controlled companies, but also to independent firms.

All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are determined by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one. The following types correspond to the stages of the technology life cycle:

Stage 1 - unique;

Stage 2 - progressive;

3 and stage - traditional;

Stage 4 - morally outdated.

TO unique technologies include inventions and other scientific and technical developments protected by patents, which makes it impossible for them to be used by competing organizations. These technologies are novel, have the highest technical level, and can be used in production under the conditions of an exclusive monopoly. Such technologies are created as a result of R&D and inventive activities of specialists. When determining the price of a unique technology on the market, its ability to create maximum additional profit for its buyer is taken into account.

TO progressive technologies include developments that have novelty and technical and economic advantages compared to analogue technologies used by potential buyers of the new technology and their competitors. Unlike unique technology, which has absolute superiority over any technology in the relevant industry, the advantages of advanced technology are relative. The progressiveness of a particular technology can manifest itself within the borders of individual countries, different companies, and in different conditions of its application. These technologies are not protected by patents and do not have pronounced know-how, but the fairly high production advantages provided by such technologies guarantee their customers additional profits. Progressive technologies can be created as a result of not only the scientific, technical and inventive activities of scientists and engineers, but also the “evolution” of unique innovations that gradually lose their novelty.

Unique and advanced technologies can bring additional profits to their buyers, so they are sold at prices that exceed the average price level for similar technologies in the relevant industry.

Traditional(conventional) technology represents developments that reflect the average level of production achieved by most product manufacturers in a given industry. This technology does not provide its buyer with significant technical and economic advantages and product quality compared to similar products from leading manufacturers, and one cannot count on additional (above average) profits in this case. Its advantages for the buyer are the relatively low cost and the opportunity to purchase technology tested in production conditions. Traditional technology is created, as a rule, as a result of obsolescence and large-scale dissemination of advanced technology. Such technology is usually sold at prices that compensate the seller for the costs of preparing it and obtaining an average profit.

Morally outdated technology refers to developments that do not ensure the production of products of average quality and with technical and economic indicators that are achieved by most manufacturers of similar products. The use of such developments perpetuates the technological backwardness of its owners.

One of the most common methods of technology transfer is licensed trade.

The development of international technological exchange is due to significant differences in the technical level of individual countries. On the other hand, knowledge and technology in backward countries must develop in the direction in which they develop in advanced countries, since the world economy as a technical and economic category is based on machine production, regardless of the level of development of a particular national economy. Thus, even if there is an autarkic model of the economy of a particular country, technical thought is still developing in the same direction as in more developed countries. However, more often, technically backward countries develop as a result of acquiring new knowledge and technologies from outside. High rates of scientific and technological progress in the second half of the 20th century. have led to the fact that over the past decades, international trade has been characterized by the involvement of a special product in trade turnover - scientific and technical achievements, i.e. active technological exchange is taking place. The concept of international technological exchange, as a rule, is interpreted in two ways: in a broad sense, it means the penetration of any scientific and technical knowledge and the exchange of production experience between countries, and in a narrow sense, it means the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge and experience related to the reproduction of specific technological processes.

Technologies are transferred both commercially and non-commercially.

Technological exchange in a broad sense is carried out, as a rule, in non-commercial forms:

· scientific and technical publications;

· holding exhibitions, fairs, symposiums;

· exchange of delegations and meetings of scientists and engineers;

· migration of specialists;

· training of undergraduate and graduate students;

· activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology, etc.

Technological exchange in a narrow sense is carried out, as a rule, in commercial forms:

· transfer, under licensing agreements, of the rights to use inventions (patents, know-how, registered trademarks, industrial designs), technical documentation;

· supply of machines and various industrial equipment;

· provision of technical assistance;

· engineering services;

· export of complete equipment;

· training and internship of specialists;

· management contracts;

· scientific, technical and production cooperation, etc.

The transfer of technology in commercial forms implies that the technology is a specific commodity. The buyer of a new technology receives at his disposal scientific and technical developments and/or created production and technological processes. The use of such developments and processes as elements of productive capital makes it possible to produce commercial products with increased competitiveness and to receive additional profits over a more or less long period due to their uniqueness or lower production costs per unit of finished product.

The increased competitiveness of products produced using new technology is inversely related to the scale of distribution (availability) of this technology. Additional profits disappear as soon as technical improvements become the property of the majority of enterprises in the industry or even more advanced technology appears. The higher the degree of monopolization of scientific and technical knowledge and production and management experience, the stronger the position of the owner of the technology in the product market. Thus, it is quite understandable that countries and individual firms that have achieved a high technical level want to maintain their monopoly on new technologies.

At the same time, technology as a commodity usually has a very high cost, determined by the large costs of R&D and their implementation. The transfer of this cost to the final product occurs gradually, after huge costs have already been incurred. The owners of a new technology are interested in reimbursing the costs incurred, which can be achieved either by expanding their own production of goods based on it, or by selling this technology before it becomes obsolete. All this pushes the owner of a new technology to utilize it as much as possible, both in his own production and by selling similar goods to other manufacturers.

Technologies are transferred to two main groups of buyers:

· foreign branches or subsidiaries of MNEs;

· independent companies.

New technologies are predominantly provided by MNEs to their affiliates or subsidiaries. So, for example, in the 80s. This group of buyers accounted for about 4/5 of the total technology sales of American MNEs. This is due to the fact that as a result of technology transfer to affiliates:

· the contradiction between the need for widespread use of new technology in order to obtain maximum profit and the threat of loss of monopoly ownership of scientific and technical achievements that arises in connection with this is largely overcome; .

· specific R&D costs are reduced and at the same time, leaks of classified information outside the MNC are eliminated;

· the profits of parent companies increase, since in many countries payments for new technology received are exempt from taxation.

Host countries often restrict imports of goods and foreign direct investment in various forms. When selling technology, it provides an opportunity to penetrate the closed market of another country, since the technology is followed by goods and services entering the host country.

Selling technology to independent companies means losing the monopoly right to use it. In addition, a technology buyer with significant scientific and technical potential may subsequently become a serious competitor. By selling technology to independent companies, sellers seek to obtain equity, combine technology transfer with the supply of their equipment, and compensate for the loss of a technology monopoly by maximizing the proceeds from the sale. Most often, technologies from those industries in which the share of R&D expenses is low (metallurgy, metalworking, textile and clothing industry, etc.) are sold to independent firms. In these industries, the monopoly on technical improvement cannot be maintained for long, since innovations are easily reproduced. The owner of a new technology, without waiting for the improvements to be copied by foreign competitors, forces its sale not only to controlled companies, but also to independent firms.

All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are determined by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one. The following types correspond to the stages of the technology life cycle*:

* Flyfall V.I. Through the barriers of protectionism. - M.: Mysl, 1988. P. 25.

Stage 1 - unique;

Stage 2 - progressive;

3rd stage - traditional;

Stage 4 - obsolete.

TO unique technologies include inventions and other scientific and technical developments that are protected by patents or contain know-how, which makes it impossible for them to be used by competing organizations. These technologies are novel, have the highest technical level, and can be used in production under the conditions of an exclusive monopoly. Such technologies are created as a result of R&D and inventive activities of specialists. When determining the price of a unique technology on the market, its ability to create maximum additional profit for its buyer is taken into account.

TO progressive technologies include developments that have novelty and technical and economic advantages compared to analogue technologies used by potential buyers of the new technology and their competitors. Unlike unique technology, which has absolute superiority over any technology in the relevant industry, the advantages of advanced technology are relative. The progressiveness of a particular technology can manifest itself within the borders of individual countries, different companies, and in different conditions of its application. These technologies are not protected by patents and do not have pronounced know-how, but the fairly high production advantages provided by such technologies guarantee their customers additional profits. Progressive technologies can be created as a result of not only the scientific, technical and inventive activities of scientists and engineers, but also the “evolution” of unique innovations that gradually lose their novelty.

Unique and advanced technologies can bring additional profits to their buyers, so they are sold at prices that exceed the average price level for similar technologies in the relevant industry.

Traditional(conventional) technology represents developments that reflect the average level of production achieved by most product manufacturers in a given industry. This technology does not provide its buyer with significant technical and economic advantages and product quality compared to similar products from leading manufacturers, and one cannot count on additional (above average) profits in this case. Its advantages for the buyer are the relatively low cost and the opportunity to purchase technology tested in production conditions. Traditional technology is created, as a rule, as a result of obsolescence and large-scale dissemination of advanced technology. Such technology is usually sold at prices that compensate the seller for the costs of preparing it and obtaining an average profit.

Morally outdated technology refers to developments that do not ensure the production of products of average quality and with technical and economic indicators that are achieved by most manufacturers of similar products. The use of such developments perpetuates the technological backwardness of its owners.

One of the most common methods of technology transfer is licensed trade.

Licensed trade

The term "license" translated from Latin means permission to do something and therefore used in various fields. In relation to technological exchange, it means permission to use licensed items under certain conditions, which are:

· patented inventions,

· industrial designs,

· trademarks,

· know-how, i.e. valuable confidential information that does not enjoy legal protection. Depending on the subject matter, licenses can be divided into patent and non-patent.

In addition to patent and non-patent licenses, there are independent (“pure”) and accompanying licenses. Self-licensing involves the transfer of technology or technical developments, regardless of their material carrier. The accompanying licenses are dependent in nature and are provided simultaneously with the conclusion of a contract for the construction of an enterprise, the supply of technological equipment, and the provision of consulting services.

The sale of licenses allows you to significantly speed up the process of developing a new market and at least partially reimburse your own research and development costs. Sometimes it is more profitable, instead of supplying finished products, to sell a license for the right to produce them, for example, in cases when problems arise related to the sale of finished products due to insufficient volume of domestic production or entering the foreign market. The development of your own production can be hampered by many reasons - from a lack of raw materials to the lack of highly qualified personnel and production space.

An obstacle to the export of products is often the protectionist policy of the government of the country to which they are expected to be supplied: high customs duties, import quotas, encouraging the import of disassembled products (in order to develop national industry).

In all these cases, selling licenses is one of the ways to enter the local market, as well as creating a branch of an exporting company in a given country. It should be noted that when selling a license, the supply of materials, components and parts for the production of products is usually provided. Thus, licensed trade turns out to be an effective incentive for selling their own products.

Selling a license can be a way for the selling company to gain access to the know-how and other achievements of the buying company, since agreements usually include a clause for the mutual exchange of improvements that will be made in the product or technology during the term of the licensing contract.

License objects

Invention a technical solution that is novel and significantly different is recognized. A technical solution is broadly understood as a practical means of satisfying a specific need. For example, certain methods of treating diseases do not belong to technology in the generally accepted sense, but since they involve the use of certain therapeutic agents in strictly established doses, for a specific time, in compliance with a certain order, then there is a treatment technique, which in this sense is considered as technical solution.

A task is considered completed if:

a) there is an indication of technical means (methods) to solve it;

b) fundamentally important points are revealed (basic diagram);

c) the solution is feasible, i.e. suitable for use. This means that specialists in the field can implement the invention using generally known techniques and technical means.

A technical solution does not necessarily have to be accompanied by a theoretical justification. It is considered new provided that its essence has not been previously disclosed in a given country or abroad to the extent that its implementation became possible. Disclosure of the solution may occur through either publication, demonstration, or open application. In all these cases, it becomes possible to copy the solution, which entails the loss of its novelty.

A technical solution is recognized as having significant differences if it is characterized by a new set of features that give a positive effect, for example:

a) all signs are new;

b) some of the features are new, and some are known;

c) all the features are known, but their combination is new.

Similar homogeneous inventions are called analogues, and the closest of them to the proposed new technical solution is a prototype. Minor differences in the new technical solution do not allow it to be considered an invention, for example, the use of equivalent means (replacing soldering with welding).

Protection of the inventor's rights is carried out using patents. A patent is a document certifying state recognition of a technical solution as an invention and assigning the exclusive right to the invention to the person to whom it was issued (the patent holder). A patent is issued by the state patent office to the inventor or his successor (the right to a service invention usually belongs to the entrepreneur) upon his application, considered in accordance with the procedure established by the legislation of this state. The duration of the patent is also determined by national legislation (usually 15-20 years). The exclusive right of the patent holder is to grant him a monopoly right to use the invention (artificial monopoly). If an invention is used without the owner's permission, he may sue for damages and an injunction against patent infringement. The patent holder has the right to alienate his rights to the invention and issue permission (license) to others to use the patented invention.

A patent protects the rights of its owner, as a rule, only in the country where it was issued. But recently, for example in Western Europe, a European patent has been in effect.

A patent fee is charged for the issuance of a patent. Thus, when issuing a European patent, it is charged for filing an application, conducting a search, indicating the state in respect of which the application is valid, maintaining the application in force, conducting an examination, issuing a patent, filing an opposition and appeal, for resuming consideration of the application if the applicant misses the established deadlines . A filing fee is common in all developed countries, and many countries also charge annual fees during the life of the patent. In most countries, the annual fee increases as you approach the end of the patent's life.

Typically, firms are not limited to one patent for a given invention, but form a block of patents - an “umbrella” that does not allow competitors to penetrate into the technical area where the company is a pioneer.

In modern conditions of intense competition, when the novelty of a product is essential for its successful marketing, patent protection of innovations is very important along with the natural market advantages that exist due to the application of the invention in production. The owner of a patent limits the freedom of activity of his competitors, so he can gain and maintain more advantageous positions in both the domestic and foreign markets. In addition, the presence of a patent stimulates demand because citing the patent is more effective than simply describing it.

Patents not only serve the function of protecting inventions from being used by other companies, but are also a source of continuous information about the latest scientific and technological achievements. With the help of patent funds, you can legally collect specific material on licensed objects, systematically monitor new inventions and analyze scientific and technical research. Almost all large companies have patent funds or use the services of relevant organizations. According to experts, about 80% of the information contained in patents cannot be found in any other source.

Patenting, as a rule, is 2-3 years ahead of the introduction of new technology into production, and a patent is a potential license, so constant study of relevant information allows firms to develop a strategy and predict the development of licensed trade.

Industrial design(industrial design) recognizes a new artistic and design solution for a product that determines its appearance. With the help of an industrial design, a monopoly on the form (ornament) of the products of labor is established. Patents are issued for industrial designs, as well as for inventions.

Trademark(trademark) is a designation registered in the prescribed manner that serves to distinguish the goods of some enterprises from similar goods of other enterprises. Trademarks usually have a letter or graphic image. Service marks are used to identify services.

Patents for inventions and industrial designs, certificates confirming the registration of trademarks and service marks, protected by the Paris Convention of 1883, relate to industrial property.

Copyright(copyright) applies to any creative work, regardless of the form, purpose and merits of the work (lectures, reports, articles, brochures, books, technical descriptions, operating instructions, illustrations of any kind, drawings, posters, photographs, etc.). This right means that without the consent of the author or his successors, no one can reproduce in any form or in any other way use objects protected by law. Copyright is protected by national laws and internationally by the Berne Convention of 1886 and the Universal Convention of 1952.

Along with patent licenses, there are also non-patent licenses for know-how(a non-patented scientific and technical achievement and production experience of a confidential nature), the owner of which has a natural monopoly, unlike the owner of a patented invention. This term was first used in the USA. Literally translated from English it means know how which is a contraction of the expression know how to do it. Initially, licensing agreements included terms providing for the transfer to the buyer of technical knowledge and experience as trade secrets of the seller necessary to exercise the right to use the invention. However, with the development of technology, the importance of transmitting this information has become so great that know-how has become an independent object of licensing agreements. In some cases, know-how is an actual invention that is deliberately kept secret and is not patented or is an element of the invention not included in the description; in others, it is directly related to the invention, but in itself is not patentable because it does not meet the requirements established legislation. For example, computer software was and remains non-patentable, like any mathematical formulas, algorithms, etc.

Unlike a patented invention, know-how does not enjoy special legal protection, and therefore the best form of protection for such knowledge is a trade secret.

Know-how may include:

· items - product samples, unpatented industrial designs, machines, instruments, spare parts, tools, devices, etc.;

· technical documentation - formulas, calculations, drawings, diagrams, unpatented inventions, etc.;

instructions - explanations regarding the design of production or use of a product, the production process, production skills, practical advice; information about the organization of work and data that helps in solving economic issues.

Thus, the concept of know-how is quite broad, it covers all kinds of technical and other information necessary primarily for the production of any product, and represents a certain economic value.

In international practice, the most common patent licenses are the simultaneous transfer of know-how and the provision of technical assistance in setting up production. The second place is occupied by licenses for know-how, and only the third place is occupied by purely patent licenses that do not provide for the transfer of know-how. This is explained, in particular, by the fact that at the current level of technological development, the development of most inventions without the provision of know-how, i.e. The experience and knowledge that the selling company has is either completely impossible or leads to unproductive expenditure of time and money, therefore know-how is the main object of not only licenses, but also other forms of technology transfer.

When concluding agreements on know-how, patent protection does not apply, therefore, in this type of licensing agreements, conditions on non-disclosure of know-how both during the validity period of the license agreement and after its expiration are of particular importance. In this regard, sometimes the agreement even stipulates the procedure for familiarizing the licensee’s employees with the know-how.

The most typical terms of licensing agreements that limit the licensee’s use of know-how are:

do not transfer acquired knowledge and experience to a third party during the term of the agreement and on average up to 5 years after the end of this period;

do not provide sublicenses for know-how, as this may entail its loss.

Related information.

If NTP is understood as the development of science and the subsequent application of its results in industrial relations, then the modern stage of NTP (NTR) is a stream of innovations spreading in accordance with laws in certain directions. Thus, scientific and technical progress existing in an industrial society is aimed at increasing production efficiency and solving problems of meeting the quantitative and partly qualitative needs of society. TNP in a post-industrial society is aimed at qualitatively meeting the needs of society and reducing the negative consequences of the development of the stage of industrial technological production.

The continuous expansion of the global technology market and the high rate of technology update increases the cost of products sold on the world market compared to the goods market and the services market, which is due to the high profitability of new technologies and their decisive role in the production process. Thus, the US National Science Foundation notes that for every dollar invested in R&D, a company with up to 100 employees implemented 4 times more innovations than companies with 1,000 - 10,000 people, and 24 times more than companies with more than 10,000 employees. 10,000 people.

Thus, technological enterprises and everything connected with their activities constitute an important element of the organizational structure of modern global social production.

Scientific and technological progress not only revolutionized the structure of the international division of labor, but also expanded the scope of its development and led to the emergence of a new form of economic relations - international scientific, technical and production cooperation.

Every 7 – 10 years, the costs of scientific development double, but the most expensive are not so much the scientific research itself, but rather bringing it to direct industrial application. According to the calculations of experts, the costs of scientific research and development at different stages of their implementation are correlated as follows: 1: 3: 6: 100, where 1 is the costs of purely scientific fundamental research; 3 - costs of fundamental research aimed at practical applications; 6 - costs of applied research; 100 - costs for specific technological developments at the production level.

Today, not a single country in the world can secure leading positions in all or many branches of science and technology. This is not only impossible, but also economically unfeasible. The development of international scientific, technical and industrial cooperation in these conditions is the only and reasonable way out.

International technology transfer is a set of economic relations between firms from different countries in the field of using foreign scientific and technological achievements.

The concept of “technology” includes:

technology itself, understood as a set of design solutions, methods and processes for the production of goods and provision of services;


materialized technology, i.e. technology embodied in machines, equipment, etc.


According to the UNCTAD experts who worked on the Technology Transfer Code, international technology transfer refers to transactions based on “agreements between parties, regardless of their legal form, which have as their goal or one of their goals the assignment of a license or the transfer of their rights to industrial property, sale or any other type of transfer of technical services.”


International technology exchange has been known since the beginning of the 20th century, but the formation of the global technology market dates back to the 50s and 60s. It was by this time that the volume of international commercial transactions with technology exceeded the scale of national exchange. According to the International Monetary Fund, which records payments and receipts for licenses, the number of countries participating in this exchange from 1960 to 1985 increased from 22 to 71, and the national composition of both sellers (from 18 to 37) and buyers (from 49 to 71 countries).


International industrial and scientific-technical cooperation has two levels of prerequisites: prerequisites at the country level; local prerequisites at the level of firms, enterprises and organizations.


Prerequisites at the country level are determined by the fact that the objective differentiation of the innovation process in firms from different countries determines differences in the technological level of national economies, and, as a consequence, different positions of states in the global technology market. Cross-country differences are quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative differences relate to the volume of funds allocated for scientific and technological development and import of technologies. These differences can be illustrated by the data in Table. 1.


Qualitative differences concern areas of research, development, orientation of export and import of scientific and technical products, etc.


The scientific and technical potential formed in the country, expressed through product or technological characteristics, and the possibilities of international technology transfer require a search for the optimal combination of its own R&D, innovations and borrowed scientific and technical results. This combination is manifested in the selective scientific and technological development of the state or an individual company. In those areas of science and technology that are not within the scope of specialization of a given country (company), an increase in the technical level is achieved through foreign technologies.


Table 1 – Financial support for science in developed countries (share of R&D expenditures in GDP%)


Year	USA	Japan	Germany	France	Great Britain	Italy	Canada
1985
1990
1995
2005
20115 (forecast)

An analysis of countries that have achieved success in implementing innovations (Table 2), producing and exporting high-tech products allows us to identify certain types of innovative development strategies.


2005	1995
1. Japan	1. USA
2. Switzerland	2. Switzerland
3. USA	3. Japan
4. Sweden	4. Sweden
5. Germany	5. Germany
6. Finland	6. Finland
7. Denmark	7. Denmark
8. France	8. France
9. Norway	9. Canada
10. Canada	10. Norway
11. Australia	11. Netherlands
12. Netherlands	12. Australia
13. Austria	13. Austria
14. UK	14. UK
15. New Zealand	15. New Zealand

The “transfer” strategy is to use foreign scientific and technical potential and transfer innovations to one’s own economy. It was carried out, for example, in the post-war period by Japan, which purchased licenses for highly efficient technologies from the USA, England, France and Russia to master the production of the latest products that were in demand abroad, and on this basis created its own potential, which subsequently ensured the entire innovation cycle - from fundamental research and development to the implementation of their results within the country and on the world market. As a result, the export of Japanese technology exceeded its import, and the country, along with some others, has advanced fundamental science.


Japan is a striking example of the implementation of a selective scientific and technological policy, as evidenced by the targeted nature of the acquisition of licenses by its firms: 50s - improving product quality and efficiency; 60s - reduction in labor intensity; 70s - reduction in energy, fuel and raw materials costs; The 80s - the same thing plus the achievement of technological independence.


The “borrowing” strategy is that, having cheap labor and using their own scientific and technical potential, countries master the production of products previously produced in more developed countries, consistently increasing their own engineering and technical support for production. Further, it becomes possible to carry out their research and development work, combining state and market forms of ownership. This strategy has been adopted in China and a number of countries in Southeast Asia. A classic example is the creation of a competitive automotive industry, highly efficient computer technology, and consumer electronics in South Korea.


The “build-up” strategy is followed by the USA, Germany, England, and France. It lies in the fact that by using their own scientific and technical potential, attracting foreign scientists and specialists, and integrating fundamental and applied science, countries are constantly creating new products and high technologies implemented in production and the social sphere.


Thus, at the country level, the acquisition of technology abroad can be considered as a kind of “compensation” for insufficient R&D expenditures in non-core areas.


Local prerequisites for international scientific and technical exchange at the level of enterprises and organizations include:

increasing the threshold of resources required to solve specific scientific and technical problems;


the narrowness of the material and technical base of an individual enterprise, institute, laboratory;


unpreparedness of existing production systems to use new technical solutions;


discrepancy between the obtained scientific and technical results and the enterprise development strategy;


new strategic opportunities arising from participation in international technology transfer.


International scientific and technical exchange and cooperation are especially significant for technology-oriented enterprises and organizations that rely on the high competitiveness of their products and services provided. They often adhere to the strategy of “producing not what is relatively cheaper or better quality, but what no one else can (yet) produce.”


Analysis of the feasibility of international technology transfer requires answers to two questions: the economic feasibility of exporting technology and its import.


The economic feasibility of exporting technology is that it is:

means of increasing income. If there are no conditions for implementing a new technology in the form of production and marketing of a particular product, the technology should at least be implemented as an independent product. This will increase financial opportunities for subsequent R&D, development of production at newly reconstructed or commissioned facilities, marketing in the domestic and foreign markets;


a form of struggle for the commodity market. Initially, due to the lack of capital, it is difficult to organize the release of the product and its sale abroad in sufficient quantities. At the same time, buyers on the foreign market will already be familiar with the product, which was previously produced under license;


a way to circumvent the problems of exporting goods in material form: there are no problems with transportation and sales of products, customs barriers;


a means of expanding commodity exports if a comprehensive licensing agreement is concluded providing for the supply of equipment, materials, components;


a method of establishing control over a foreign company through such terms of a licensing agreement as the volume of goods produced by the license buyer, his participation in profits (royalties), control over the technical conditions of production, the use of securities and the licensee as a license fee;


6) a way to provide access to another innovation through cross-licensing


7) the possibility of more effective improvement of the licensed object with the participation of the purchasing partner, which is often provided for in the license agreement.


The economic feasibility of importing technology is that it is:


access to high-tech innovations;


a means of saving R&D costs, including time;


a means of reducing the cost of imported goods and at the same time a means of attracting national capital and labor;


a condition for expanding the export of products imported using foreign technologies. Experience shows that in many countries the share of products produced under licenses in foreign exchange exports exceeds the share of national products. One of the reasons for this is the high quality of licensed products.


This determined the emergence and intensive development of the global technology market, which has a unique structure and features.


2. WORLD TECHNOLOGY MARKET: STRUCTURE AND FEATURES


The heterogeneity of scientific and technological progress, the presence of various forms of science and technology, on the other hand, and various channels of technology transfer, on the other hand, determined the heterogeneity of the global technology market and led to the formation of such segments as:

patent and license market;


market for high-tech technological products;


high-tech capital market;


market for scientific and technical specialists.


The following figures give an idea of ​​the size of technology market segments: the global license market is approaching $30 billion and is trending toward rapid growth; the global market for science-intensive products is $2.3 trillion per year; direct foreign investments in 1397 exceeded $827 billion, of which, according to various estimates, 10-20% of investments can be attributed to high-tech capital. According to forecasts, by 2015 the demand for high-tech machinery and equipment will reach $3.5-4 trillion.


The sectoral structure of the technology market changes depending on the goals of scientific and technological development of countries. In the 40-50s, the main thing was to ensure military-technical superiority; in the 60-80s, this goal was supplemented by the tasks of ensuring stable rates of economic growth and increasing the global competitiveness of individual industries. Since the 90s, countries have shifted the priorities of science and technology policy towards information services, medicine, ecology and other aspects of sustainable growth and improving the quality of life.


Therefore, the modern structure of the global technology market is represented by knowledge-intensive industries, including: electrical, electronic, chemical, pharmaceutical, communications, instrument making, aerospace, and automotive.


This is one of the most intensively developing world markets in recent decades, since in terms of its dynamic parameters, technological exchange prevails over traditional world economic flows of both goods and monetary capital.


The global technology market is better developed than the national one, even if we take into account the internal technological exchange of any developed country in the world. The main role in this process was played by international corporations, which created a special mechanism for sharing R&D results between parent and subsidiary companies. Assessing the role of international corporations in global development, the authors of the fourth review of the UN Center on TNCs come to the conclusion that “these associations made the most significant contribution to the field of technology transfer.”


The technological gap that exists between countries at different stages of economic development determines at least a two-level structure of the technology market:


a) high technologies circulate mainly between industrialized countries;


b) medium and low technologies may be new to the market of developing and transforming countries and the subject of technological
exchange between them and within these groups of countries.


There is another explanation for the latter. As a rule, technologies of industrialized countries are labor-, resource-saving and capital-intensive, while technologies of developing countries and countries with transition economies are capital-saving, labor- and resource-intensive.


The global high-tech market is characterized by a uniquely high concentration of resources in a small number of developed countries: 40% belongs to the USA, 30% to Japan, 13% to Germany (Russia only 0.3%).


The main competitors in the global high-tech market are the USA and Japan. In the 90s, American leadership in the field of Internet technologies (in science and education, trade and transport, leisure and telecommunications) and electronic intercompany trade strengthened. At the same time, patent statistics data reflect significant advantages of Japanese companies in obtaining American patents compared to US companies (Table 3).


Table 3 - Firms that received the largest number of patents


Firm	Number patents, 1991	Firm	Number patents, 2005
"Toshiba"	1014	"IBM"	2657
"Mitsubishi"		"Kenon"	1928
"Hitachi"		"Nippon Electric"	1627
"Kodak"		"Motorola"	1406
"Kenon"		"Sony"	1316
"General" electrician		"Samsung"	1304
"Fuggi Photo"		"Fyujitsu"	1189
"IBM"		"Toshiba"	1170
"Philips"		"Kodak"	1124
"Motorola"		"Hitachi"	1094
Total	8045	Total	14815

The degree of monopolization of the global technology market is much higher than that of the global goods market. Its unusually high level is evidenced by the following data: in the 90s, TNCs controlled more than 1/3 of world capitalist industrial production, over 1/2 of foreign trade, and in the field of technology the level of monopoly capital reaches 80%.


The behavior strategy of TNCs in the global technology market in relation to independent firms and countries is determined by the “life cycle” of the technology:


at the first stage of the “life cycle”, preference is given to the sale of finished products, which implement new ideas, principles,
process and which is capable of providing the buyer with new quality;


at the second stage, technological exchange is supplemented (or carried out) by direct foreign investment;


at the third stage, preference is given to the sale of pure licenses. In recent years, this stage has been accompanied by the establishment of new joint
enterprises, but the technology coming to them is not advanced.


When transferring technology to independent foreign firms, TNCs often use restrictive business practices, including:


restrictions on the use of technology or know-how after the expiration of a patent or licensing agreement;


conditions obliging the buyer of the technology to transfer to the seller the improvements and enhancements he has made to the technology;


setting prices for products manufactured on the basis of the sold technology;


limitation of production and export volumes, areas of use of the licensed product;


support for the sale of technologies “related” to the export of raw materials, semi-finished products, equipment, etc.


The exchange of technologies is not based on random, episodic and spontaneous transactions, but is largely pre-prepared in nature (often carried out in close connection with the strategic goals of the parent companies). They have a serious impact on the degree of novelty of the technology entering the market, the geography and industry structure of its placement.


Since the 80s, inter-firm cooperation (instead of competition) has become the dominant line of behavior of TNCs in the global technology market.


As R. Brainard, a member of the OECD's Science, Technology and Industry Directorate, notes: “This process began at a time when international competition was intensifying, when technology became a decisive factor in competitiveness... Companies were able to extract economic benefits from combining research and technology, although they continued to compete in the field of their application and sales of products in markets.” This process can be illustrated by the international intertwining of leading firms in the automotive industry (Table 4).


Table 4 – International weaves in the automotive industry


Firm	Co-owners
Rover	Honda, Ford, Volkswagen, Chrysler, General Motors, Suzuki
BMW	80% - Rover, Daihatsu
Ford	25% - Mazda, 10% - KIA, Volkswagen, Chrysler, Fiat, Renault, General Motors, Nissan, Suzuki
Mercedes Benz	BMW, Mitsubishi, Porsche, Volkswagen
Honda	20% - Rover, Chrysler, Daewoo, General Motors, Mercedes, Peugeot, Mitsubishi
Mazda	8% - KIA, Nissan, Isuzu, Fiat, Mercedes, Mitsubishi, Peugeot, Porsche, Suzuki
KIA	Daihatsu, Ford, Mazda, Renault
Renault	Peugeot, Toyota
General Motors	50% - Saab, 3.5% - Suzuki, 37.5% - Isuzu, Chrysler, Fiat, Ford, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Peugeot, Volvo
Isuzu	General Motors, Daewoo, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Peugeot, Volvo
Volvo	20% - Renault, Daewoo, General Motors, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, Peugeot
Volkswagen	Audi, Seat, Skoda, Porsche, Mercedes, Rover, Suzuki, Toyota, Nissan, Volvo, Ford
Porsche	Mercedes, Volkswagen
Daewoo	General Motors, Honda, Suzuki, Volvo, Nissan
Peugeot/Citroen	Suzuki, Honda, Renault, Isuzu, Nissan, Rover, Chrysler, Fiat, Daihatsu, Volvo
Toyota	14.7% - Daihatsu, General Motors, Volkswagen, Nissan, Ford, Renault
Mitsubishi	Mazda, Suzuki, General Motors, Mercedes, Chrysler, Honda, Isuzu
Fiat	Peugeot, Chrysler, Ford, Nissan, Mazda, General Motors
Nissan	Daewoo, Ford, Mazda, Fiat, General Motors, Toyota
Chrysler	Fiat, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Mitsubishi, Peugeot

Intercompany cooperation includes: venture agreements, joint research and development, technology exchange, direct investment, supply agreements, unilateral technology transfer.


The global technology market has a specific regulatory framework for its functioning in the form of the International Code of Conduct in the field of technology transfer (Geneva, UNCTAD, 1979) and international regulatory bodies (organizations): UNCTAD Committee on Technology Transfer, Meeting of Security and Technology Specialists (STEM) .


An integral element of the structure of modern international economic relations is the international exchange of technology. The role and importance of international technology exchange have especially increased since the second half of the twentieth century, when the world community entered an era of qualitative changes in the content of the concept of “technology”. From empirically learned skills to carry out production activities and, accordingly, interaction with the forces of nature in the process of such activities, technology has turned into a set of scientifically based methods of production. As such, it began to include three interrelated components of knowledge that have production significance: knowledge about the general chemical and physical conditions of production, knowledge about the methods of influencing the object of labor with appropriate tools, and about the technical and economic organization of labor and its management. Embodying this knowledge, the sources of which are increasingly the development of natural science, technology has acquired a new functional role - a mediating link in the interaction of science with production. In turn, international technology exchange, ensuring the spatial dissemination of scientific and technological achievements in the world economy, has established itself as the most important factor in realizing the global nature of scientific and technological progress.
Kireev A. International economics. - M.: International Relations, 2005. Market of services in the general system of international economic relations Monetary and credit relations in the system of international economic relations

1. Non-traditional service as a product of scientific and technical progress.

2. Technological exchange:

a) licensed trade. Types of licenses;

b) forms of technological exchange

3. Engineering services in international trade.

4. Leasing in foreign trade relations.

1. What services arise thanks to STP?

2. What is a patent, license, copyright, trademark?

3. What types of licenses are there?

4. Through what channels is technological exchange carried out?

5. What is the license agreement?

6. Name the stages of licensing agreements as prices fall.

7. What are the features of pricing in the licensing agreement market?

8. What types of reimbursement of the license price (licensing fees) do you know?

9. What is engineering? What groups are engineering services divided into?

10. What is leasing? Provide a leasing scheme.

11. Give the concept of operating leasing, financial, direct, indirect, export and import leasing, rating, hiring.

12. What is the share of a group of countries in the leasing services market?

13. Why is technology a determining factor in countries' competitive advantages in international trade?

14. Describe the technological life cycle of a product in international trade.

Topic of practical lesson No. 12.

Pricing in international trade

1) The concept of world price. Price levels.

2) Types of world prices.

3) Types of discounts on world prices.

4) Basic prices. Basic terms of delivery.

5) Contract prices and their types.

Assignments and questions for discussion.

1. What is meant by multiple prices?

2. What are the world price levels?

3. What are the conditions under which the prices of trade transactions correspond to world prices?

4. What is the published price, seller's price, buyer's price?

5. What are the published prices?

6. What determines the size of the discount from the published price?

7. List the types of discounts from published prices?

8. In what cases are settlement prices applied?

9. What is the basic price, basic delivery terms?

10. What are the current basic delivery conditions? In what cases do certain basic conditions apply?

11. What types of contract prices are there in terms of their fixation?

12. What parts does the moving price and power price consist of?

No lab plans provided.

Topic 1. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to master the concepts of an open economy and economic security, structure and current trends in the development of international trade.

Topic 2. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to master the classical, new and latest theories of international trade, to understand the mechanism of formation of the world market based on the equilibrium model.

Topic 3. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to know the differences between the concepts of the world market, world economy, international trade, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, to know the classification of countries.

Topic 4. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to understand the goals, objectives and principles of the foreign trade policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to know the competitive and non-competitive advantages of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Topic 5. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study the problems (pros and cons) of Kazakhstan’s accession to the WTO.

For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.

Topic 6. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to understand the types of customs duties and be able to construct graphs of import and export tariffs. When solving problems, use knowledge of microeconomics on the topic “Fundamentals of supply and demand analysis.”

Topic 7. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to know the classification of non-tariff methods, be able to use these methods for specific cases, and learn the tools for measuring non-tariff methods. When constructing graphs, use knowledge of microeconomics on the topic “Fundamentals of supply and demand analysis.”

Topic 8. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to learn how to use various types of customs regimes for specific cases when exporting and importing goods, to consider cases of levying customs duties, and to be able to depict patterns of movement of goods under various customs regimes.

Topic 9. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to distinguish between the forms and methods of international trade, to know the reasons for the spread of countertrade, and to study the various types of trade intermediaries.

For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.

Topic 10. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to distinguish between traditional and non-traditional services, to study the composition of the global services market, the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in this market, as well as what trade policy instruments should be used to limit the access of foreign service providers to the domestic market.

Topic 11. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study non-traditional services as a product of scientific and technological progress, the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the market of non-traditional services, and the peculiarities of pricing in the licensing agreement market.

For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.

Topic 12. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study the types of world prices, understand the types of world price discounts, know in which cases settlement prices are applied, certain basic delivery conditions, and what types of contract prices there are.

11 Lesson plans for students’ independent work under the guidance of a teacher

SRSP Topic No. 1. Introduction to the course

"International trade and world prices"

Tasks:

1) Calculation of export, import, foreign trade quotas for individual countries and groups of countries. Execution of calculations in the form of a table. Justify the degree of openness of individual countries. Determining the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in terms of economic openness.

2) Analyze the commodity structure of international trade for the period from 1940 to 2008. Draw conclusions.

3) Analyze the geographical structure of international trade for the period from 1940 to 2008. Draw conclusions.

Form of conduct: work with statistical collections.

The study and comprehension of educational material must be accompanied by an understanding of the content of the categories (law, subject, object) and the obligatory reinforcement of the material in the form of specific examples.

SRSP Topic No. 2.

“The theory of international trade and its development in the modern era”

Abstract topic:

1. “Dutch disease”: causes, consequences, possible solutions.

2. M. Porter’s theory of competition and the possibilities of its application in Kazakhstan.

3. Theory of scale effect.

4. Technology gap theory.

5. The theory of “catch-up product cycle” or “flying flock of geese”.

6. The theory of intra-industry trade.

7. Theory and reconciliation of production factors.

8. Similarity preference theory.

Form of conduct: Writing an essay on the topic, speaking at a practical lesson. Opposition.

For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.

SRSP Topic No. 3.

"Structure and dynamics of international trade"

Exercise:

1) Consideration of the dynamics of world industrial production and world trade in 1980-2000 (annual changes), as a percentage, in billions of dollars.

2) Calculation of the share of individual groups of states in world exports and imports in 1980-2000 as a percentage.

3) Consideration of the growth rates of exports and imports by groups of countries 1980-2000. (annual changes in physical volume), in percent.

4) Determination of the commodity structure of world exports by individual groups of goods for 1950 - 2004, in percentage.

Abstract topic:

1. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the foreign exchanges.

2. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the developing countries.

3. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the countries with a transition economy.

4. The role and place of the EU in international trade.

5. NAFTA and its importance in international trade.

6. NIS and their role in international trade and regional commodity exchange.

7. International trade between the EU and the USA.

Form of conduct: Working with his statistical collections and writing abstracts.

Know the differences between the concepts of the world market, world economy, international trade, be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, know the classification of countries.

The study and comprehension of educational material should be accompanied by an understanding of the content of the categories and the obligatory reinforcement of the material in the form of specific examples.

SRSP Topic No. 4.

"Foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan"

1) Topic of abstracts:

1. The Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation: bilateral trade.

2. Mutual trade between the Republic of Kazakhstan and China.

3. The Republic of Kazakhstan and the Eurasian Union: Mutual trade.

4. Participation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in regional unions.

2) Presentation of the topic: Problems and prospects for the integration of the Republic of Kazakhstan into the international trade system.

3) Analyze the commodity structure of exports and imports of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 1991 – 2004.

4) Analyze the geographical structure of exports and imports of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 1991 – 2004.

Form of conduct: Writing abstracts, presenting topics, working with statistical materials.

Methodological recommendations for implementation: To master the goals, objectives and principles of the foreign trade policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to know the competitive and non-competitive advantages of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

SRSP Topic No. 5.