Social inequality causes it. Social inequality in society can lead to disaster

“Even in a prosperous society, the unequal status of people remains an important and enduring phenomenon... Of course, these differences are no longer based on the direct force and legal norms on which the system of privileges in a caste or class society was based. Nevertheless, in addition to the cruder divisions of property and income, prestige and power, our society is characterized by many differences of rank - so subtle and at the same time so deeply rooted that claims about the disappearance of all forms of inequality as a result of equalizing processes can be perceived as but at least skeptical.”

Dahrendorf R.

Inequality is an integral element of any society. We are talking about social inequality, which is reproduced in fairly stable forms, as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. Research by anthropologists suggests that inequality already existed in primitive societies and was determined by strength, dexterity, courage, religious awareness, etc. Inequality is generated even by natural differences between people, but it manifests itself most deeply as a consequence of social factors. As a result, some individuals, groups or layers have greater capabilities or resources (financial, power, etc.) than others. The existence of social inequality can be taken as an axiom. However, an explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, and the relationship of specific forms remains one of the key problems of any sociological research.

Inequality in modern sociological theory.

There are different definitions of inequality: “Inequality is the conditions under which people have unequal access to social goods such as money, power and prestige”; “Social inequality is a specific form of social differentiation in which individuals, social boundaries, layers, classes are at different levels of the vertical social hierarchy and have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs”; “In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources for material and spiritual consumption.” All these definitions reflect different aspects of social inequality.

In sociology, one of the first explanations of inequality was given by E. Durkheim in his work “On the Division of Social Labor.” The author's conclusion is that different types of activities are valued differently in society. Accordingly, they form a certain hierarchy. Moreover, people themselves have different degrees of talent, skill, etc. Society must ensure that the most able and competent perform the most important functions; this in turn determines various rewards.

Within the framework of structural functionalism, the concept of stratification was developed by American sociologists K. Davis and W. Moore. Inequality acts as a natural way of self-regulation and survival of society, its organization, and as an incentive for advancement. Thus, society is not just differentiated, but hierarchically structured, according to the principle of “higher” - “lower”.

The analysis of the vertical stratification of society is reflected in the theory of stratification. The very concept of “stratification” came to sociology from geology, where “strata” means a geological layer. This concept quite accurately conveys the content of social differentiation, when social groups are arranged in social space in a hierarchically organized, vertically sequential series along some dimension of inequality.

The criteria for organizing inequality may be different. This serves as the basis for a multidimensional approach to the study of social stratification in Western sociology. As you know, for many years we were dominated by class theory, based on a one-dimensional approach to the analysis of social differentiation, where the determining criterion is the attitude to property and the means of production. Hence, at various stages of development of society, the main classes of the haves and have-nots were distinguished: slaves and slave owners, peasants and feudal lords, proletarians and bourgeois.

However, the “closedness” to the economy could not explain the diversity and volume that in real life characterize the social differentiation of society. M. Weber expands the range of criteria, including attitude to power and social prestige, which allows one to take one or another place on the social ladder in accordance with one’s status.

P. A. Sorokin identifies different forms of social differentiation. Property inequality gives rise to economic differentiation, inequality in the possession of power indicates political differentiation, division by type of activity, differing in the level of prestige, gives grounds to talk about professional differentiation.

In modern Western sociology, based on a multidimensional approach, different dimensions of stratification are distinguished: based on gender, age, race, property status, education, etc.

However, social differentiation is only one component of social stratification. Another, no less important, is social assessment.

American sociologist T. Parsons emphasized that social hierarchy is determined by the cultural standards and values ​​prevailing in society. In accordance with this, in different societies, with the change of eras, the criteria determining the status of an individual or group changed.

Aspects of inequality

Inequality in human society acts as one of the current objects of sociological research. Its reasons also lie in several main aspects.

Inequality initially implies different opportunities and unequal access to available social and material goods. Among these benefits are the following:

1. Income is a certain amount of money that a person receives per unit of time. Often, income is directly the wage that is paid for the labor produced by a person and the physical or mental strength expended. In addition to labor, it can also be the ownership of property that “works.” Thus, the lower a person’s income, the lower the level he is in the hierarchy of society;
2. Education is a complex of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by a person during his stay in educational institutions. Educational attainment is measured by the number of years of schooling. These can range from 9 years (junior high school). For example, a professor may have more than 20 years of education behind him; accordingly, he will be at a much higher level than a person who has completed 9 grades;
3. Power is the ability of an individual to impose his worldview and point of view on wider sections of the population, regardless of their desire. The level of power is measured by the number of people over which it extends;
4. Prestige is a position in society and its assessment, which has developed on the basis of public opinion.

Causes of social inequality

For a long time, many researchers have wondered whether society can exist in principle if there is no inequality or hierarchy in it. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to understand the causes of social inequality.

Different approaches interpret this phenomenon and its causes differently. Let's analyze the most influential and famous ones.

Note 1

Functionalism explains the phenomenon of inequality based on the variety of social functions. These functions are inherent in different layers, classes and communities.

The functioning and development of social relations are possible only under the condition of division of labor. In this situation, each social group solves problems that are vital for the entire society. Some are engaged in the creation and production of material goods, while the activities of others are aimed at creating spiritual values. A control layer is also needed that will control the activities of the first two - hence the third.

For the successful functioning of society, a combination of all three of the above types of human activity is simply necessary. Some turn out to be the most important, and some the least. Thus, based on the hierarchies of functions, a hierarchy of classes and layers that perform them is formed.

Status explanation of social inequality. It is based on observations of the actions and behavior of specific individuals. As we understand, every person who occupies a certain place in society automatically acquires his status. Hence the opinion that social inequality is, first of all, inequality of status. It stems both from the ability of individuals to perform a certain role, and from the opportunities that allow a person to achieve a certain position in society.

In order for an individual to fulfill one or another social role, he needs to have certain skills, abilities and qualities (to be competent, sociable, to have the appropriate knowledge and skills to be a teacher, engineer). The opportunities that allow a person to achieve a particular position in society are, for example, ownership of property, capital, origin from a famous and wealthy family, belonging to a high class or political forces.

An economic view of the causes of social inequality. In accordance with this point of view, the main reason for social inequality lies in unequal treatment of property and distribution of material goods. This approach was most clearly manifested under Marxism, when it was the emergence of private property that led to the social stratification of society and the formation of antagonistic classes.

Problems of social inequality

Social inequality is a very common phenomenon, and therefore, like many other manifestations in society, it faces a number of problems.

Firstly, problems of inequality arise simultaneously in two of the most developed areas of society: in the social and economic spheres.

When we talk about problems of inequality in the public sphere, it is worth mentioning the following manifestations of instability:

1. Uncertainty about one’s future, as well as about the stability of the position in which the individual currently finds himself;
2. Suspension of production due to dissatisfaction on the part of various segments of the population, which leads to a shortage of products for others;
3. Growing social tension, which can lead to consequences such as riots, social conflicts;
4. Lack of real social elevators that will allow you to move up the social ladder both from bottom to top and vice versa - from top to bottom;
5. Psychological pressure due to a feeling of unpredictability of the future, lack of clear forecasts for further development.

In the economic sphere, the problems of social inequality are expressed as follows: an increase in government costs for the production of certain goods or services, a partially unfair distribution of income (received not by those who actually work and use their physical strength, but by those who invest more money), respectively, from here Another significant problem arises - unequal access to resources.

Note 2

A special feature of the problem of inequality of access to resources is that it is both a cause and a consequence of modern social inequality.

And they have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet their needs.

In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources for material and spiritual consumption.

Fulfilling qualitatively unequal working conditions and satisfying social needs to varying degrees, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because these types of labor have different assessments of their social usefulness.

The main mechanisms of social inequality are relations of property, power (dominance and subordination), social (i.e. socially assigned and hierarchized) division of labor, as well as uncontrolled, spontaneous social differentiation. These mechanisms are mainly associated with the characteristics of a market economy, with inevitable competition (including in the labor market) and unemployment. Social inequality is perceived and experienced by many people (primarily the unemployed, economic migrants, those who find themselves at or below the poverty line) as a manifestation of injustice. Social inequality and wealth stratification in society, as a rule, lead to increased social tension, especially during the transition period. This is precisely what is typical for Russia at present.

The main principles of social policy are:

1. the establishment of socialist power with the subsequent transition to communism and the withering away of the state;
2. protecting the standard of living by introducing various forms of compensation for price increases and indexing;
3. providing assistance to the poorest families;
4. issuing assistance in case of unemployment;
5. ensuring social insurance policy, establishing a minimum wage for workers;
6. development of education, health protection, and the environment mainly at the expense of the state;
7. pursuing an active policy aimed at ensuring qualifications.

Literature

• Shkaratan, Ovsey Irmovich. Sociology of inequality. Theory and reality; National research University "Higher School of Economics". - M.: Publishing house. House of the Higher School of Economics, 2012. - 526 p. - ISBN 978-5-7598-0913-5

Links

• "Ideology of Inequality" Elizaveta Aleksandrova-Zorina

See also

Categories:

• Social inequality
• Social systems
• Economic problems
• Social problems
• Socioeconomics
• Income distribution

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See what “Social inequality” is in other dictionaries:

For inequalities in the socio-economic sense, see Social inequality. In mathematics, an inequality (≠) is a statement about the relative size or order of two objects, or that they are simply not the same (see also Equality).... ... Wikipedia

SOCIAL EQUALITY- – a type of social relations characterized by the same rights and freedoms of individuals belonging to different classes, social groups and strata, their equality before the law. Antipode S. r. - social inequality that arose with... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

A concept denoting the same social position of people belonging to different social classes and groups. SR idea. as a principle of organizing society in different historical eras was understood differently. Philosophy of the ancient world... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

English inequality, social; German Ungleichheit, soziale; frlpedašo sociale; A specific form of social differentiation, when cutting individual individuals, social. boundaries, layers, classes are at different levels of vertical social. hierarchies, have unequal... Encyclopedia of Sociology

INEQUALITY, a, cf. 1. Lack of equality (in 1 and 2 meanings), equality. N. sil. Social n. 2. In mathematics: a relationship between quantities, showing that one quantity is greater or less than another. The inequality sign (>... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

SOCIAL EQUALITY- a concept denoting the same social position of people belonging to different social classes and groups. The idea of ​​S.R. as a principle of organizing society in different historical eras was understood differently. Philosophy of the ancient world... ... Sociology: Encyclopedia

Liberalism ... Wikipedia

A; Wed 1. Lack of equality in anything. Social, economic n. N. sil. N. before the law. N. women. 2. Math. A relationship between numbers or quantities, indicating that one of them is greater or less than the other (indicated by the sign ≠ or ◁, ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

inequality- INEQUALITY, a, cf. Social rule, which consists in non-observance of equal rights of people in society, equal status of someone, something, lack of equality; Syn: inequality; Ant.: equality. Economic inequality of regions. Inequality... ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

inequality- A; Wed 1) Lack of equality in anything. Social, economic inequality. Inequality of power. Inequality before the law. Inequality of women. 2) math. A relationship between numbers or quantities indicating that one of them is greater or less... ... Dictionary of many expressions

Books

• There is social inequality! , Plantel Group. After reading this book, old fairy tales about princes and princesses sound and are perceived differently. After all, it is about economic and social inequality that existed in the past...

Even a superficial look at the people around us gives reason to talk about their dissimilarity. People are different by gender, age, temperament, height, hair color, level of intelligence and many other characteristics. Nature endowed one with musical abilities, another with strength, a third with beauty, and for someone she prepared the fate of a frail and disabled person. Differences between people, due to their physiological and mental characteristics, are called natural.

Natural differences are far from harmless; they can become the basis for the emergence of unequal relationships between individuals. The strong force the weak, the cunning prevail over the simpletons. Inequality arising from natural differences is the first form of inequality, which appears in one form or another in some animal species. However, in the main human thing is social inequality, inextricably linked with social differences, social differentiation.

Social are called those differences, which generated by social factors: way of life (urban and rural population), division of labor (mental and manual workers), social roles (father, doctor, politician), etc., which leads to differences in the degree of ownership of property, income received, power, achievement , prestige, education.

Different levels of social development are basis for social inequality, the emergence of rich and poor, stratification of society, its stratification (a stratum that includes people with the same income, power, education, prestige).

Income- the amount of cash receipts received by an individual per unit of time. This may be labor, or it may be the ownership of property that “works.”

Education— a complex of knowledge acquired in educational institutions. Its level is measured by the number of years of education. Let's say, junior high school is 9 years. The professor has more than 20 years of education behind him.

Power- the ability to impose your will on other people regardless of their wishes. It is measured by the number of people to whom it applies.

Prestige- this is an assessment of the position of an individual in society, established in public opinion.

Causes of social inequality

Can a society exist without social inequality?? Apparently, in order to answer the question posed, it is necessary to understand the reasons that give rise to the unequal position of people in society. In sociology there is no single universal explanation for this phenomenon. Various scientific and methodological schools and directions interpret it differently. Let us highlight the most interesting and noteworthy approaches.

Functionalism explains inequality based on the differentiation of social functions, performed by various layers, classes, communities. The functioning and development of society are possible only thanks to the division of labor, when each social group solves the corresponding tasks that are vital for the entire integrity: some are engaged in the production of material goods, others create spiritual values, others manage, etc. For the normal functioning of society an optimal combination of all types of human activity is necessary. Some of them are more important, others less so. So, based on the hierarchy of social functions, a corresponding hierarchy of classes and layers is formed executing them. Those who exercise general leadership and management of the country are invariably placed at the top of the social ladder, because only they can support and ensure the unity of society and create the necessary conditions for the successful performance of other functions.

The explanation of social inequality by the principle of functional utility is fraught with a serious danger of subjectivist interpretation. Indeed, why is this or that function considered more significant if society as an integral organism cannot exist without functional diversity? This approach does not allow us to explain such realities as the recognition of an individual as belonging to a higher stratum in the absence of his direct participation in management. That is why T. Parsons, considering social hierarchy as a necessary factor ensuring the viability of a social system, links its configuration with the system of dominant values ​​in society. In his understanding, the location of social layers on the hierarchical ladder is determined by the ideas formed in society about the importance of each of them.

Observations of the actions and behavior of specific individuals gave impetus to the development status explanation of social inequality. Each person, occupying a certain place in society, acquires his own status. - this is inequality of status, arising both from the ability of individuals to fulfill one or another social role (for example, to be competent to manage, to have the appropriate knowledge and skills to be a doctor, lawyer, etc.), and from the capabilities that allow a person to achieve one or another position in society (ownership of property, capital, origin, membership of influential political forces).

Let's consider economic view to the problem. In accordance with this point of view, the root cause of social inequality lies in unequal treatment of property and distribution of material goods. Most brightly this approach manifested itself in Marxism. According to his version, it was the emergence of private property led to social stratification of society, the formation antagonistic classes. The exaggeration of the role of private property in the social stratification of society led Marx and his followers to the conclusion that it was possible to eliminate social inequality by establishing public ownership of the means of production.

The lack of a unified approach to explaining the origins of social inequality is due to the fact that it is always perceived at at least two levels. Firstly, as a property of society. Written history does not know societies without social inequality. The struggle of people, parties, groups, classes is a struggle for the possession of greater social opportunities, advantages and privileges. If inequality is an inherent property of society, therefore, it carries a positive functional load. Society reproduces inequality because it needs it as a source of life support and development.

Secondly, inequality always perceived as unequal relationships between people, groups. Therefore, it becomes natural to strive to find the origins of this unequal position in the characteristics of a person’s position in society: in the possession of property, power, in the personal qualities of individuals. This approach is now widespread.

Inequality has many faces and manifests itself in various parts of a single social organism: in the family, in an institution, in an enterprise, in small and large social groups. It is a necessary condition organization of social life. Parents, having an advantage in experience, skills, and financial resources over their young children, have the opportunity to influence the latter, facilitating their socialization. The functioning of any enterprise is carried out on the basis of the division of labor into managerial and subordinate-executive. The appearance of a leader in a team helps to unite it and transform it into a sustainable entity, but at the same time it is accompanied by the provision leader of special rights.

Any organization strives to preserve inequalities seeing in him ordering principle, without which it is impossible reproduction of social connections and integration of the new. This is the same property inherent in society as a whole.

Ideas about social stratification

All societies known to history were organized in such a way that some social groups always had a privileged position over others, which was expressed in the unequal distribution of social benefits and powers. In other words, all societies without exception are characterized by social inequality. Even the ancient philosopher Plato argued that any city, no matter how small it may be, is actually divided into two halves - one for the poor, the other for the rich, and they are at enmity with each other.

Therefore, one of the basic concepts of modern sociology is “social stratification” (from the Latin stratum - layer + facio - I do). Thus, the Italian economist and sociologist V. Pareto believed that social stratification, changing in form, existed in all societies. At the same time, as the famous sociologist of the 20th century believed. P. Sorokin, in any society, at any time, there is a struggle between the forces of stratification and the forces of equalization.

The concept of “stratification” came to sociology from geology, where it refers to the arrangement of the Earth’s layers along a vertical line.

Under social stratification We will understand a vertical slice of the arrangement of individuals and groups along horizontal layers (strata) based on such characteristics as income inequality, access to education, amount of power and influence, and professional prestige.

In Russian, the analogue of this recognized concept is social stratification.

The basis of stratification is social differentiation - the process of emergence of functionally specialized institutions and division of labor. A highly developed society is characterized by a complex and differentiated structure, a diverse and rich status-role system. At the same time, inevitably some social statuses and roles are preferable and more productive for individuals, as a result of which they are more prestigious and desirable for them, while some are considered by the majority as somewhat humiliating, associated with a lack of social prestige and a low standard of living in general. It does not follow from this that all statuses that have arisen as a product of social differentiation are located in a hierarchical order; Some of them, for example those based on age, do not contain grounds for social inequality. Thus, the status of a young child and the status of an infant are not unequal, they are simply different.

Inequality between people exists in any society. This is quite natural and logical, given that people differ in their abilities, interests, life preferences, value orientations, etc. In every society there are poor and rich, educated and uneducated, enterprising and non-entrepreneurial, those with power and those without it. In this regard, the problem of the origin of social inequality, attitudes towards it and ways to eliminate it has always aroused increased interest, not only among thinkers and politicians, but also among ordinary people who view social inequality as injustice.

In the history of social thought, the inequality of people has been explained in different ways: by the original inequality of souls, by divine providence, by the imperfection of human nature, by functional necessity by analogy with the organism.

German economist K. Marx connected social inequality with the emergence of private property and the struggle of interests of different classes and social groups.

German sociologist R. Dahrendorf also believed that economic and status inequality, which underlies the ongoing conflict of groups and classes and the struggle for the redistribution of power and status, is formed as a result of the action of the market mechanism for regulating supply and demand.

Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin explained the inevitability of social inequality by the following factors: internal biopsychic differences of people; the environment (natural and social), which objectively puts individuals in an unequal position; the joint collective life of individuals, which requires the organization of relationships and behavior, which leads to the stratification of society into the governed and the managers.

American sociologist T. Pearson explained the existence of social inequality in every society by the presence of a hierarchized system of values. For example, in American society, success in business and career is considered the main social value, therefore technological scientists, plant directors, etc. have higher status and income, while in Europe the dominant value is “preservation of cultural patterns”, due to what society gives special prestige to intellectuals in the humanities, clergy, and university professors.

Social inequality, being inevitable and necessary, manifests itself in all societies at all stages of historical development; Only the forms and degrees of social inequality change historically. Otherwise, individuals would lose the incentive to engage in complex and labor-intensive, dangerous or uninteresting activities and improve their skills. With the help of inequality in income and prestige, society encourages individuals to engage in necessary but difficult and unpleasant professions, rewards the more educated and talented, etc.

The problem of social inequality is one of the most acute and pressing in modern Russia. A feature of the social structure of Russian society is strong social polarization - the division of the population into poor and rich in the absence of a significant middle layer, which serves as the basis of an economically stable and developed state. The strong social stratification characteristic of modern Russian society reproduces a system of inequality and injustice, in which the opportunities for independent self-realization and improvement of social status are limited for a fairly large part of the Russian population.

And they have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet their needs.

In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources for material and spiritual consumption.

Fulfilling qualitatively unequal working conditions and satisfying social needs to varying degrees, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because these types of labor have different assessments of their social usefulness.

The main mechanisms of social inequality are relations of property, power (dominance and subordination), social (that is, socially assigned and hierarchized) division of labor, as well as uncontrolled, spontaneous social differentiation. These mechanisms are primarily associated with the characteristics of a market economy, with inevitable competition (including in the labor market) and unemployment. Social inequality is perceived and experienced by many people (primarily the unemployed, economic migrants, those who find themselves at or below the poverty line) as a manifestation of injustice. Social inequality and wealth stratification in society, as a rule, lead to increased social tension, especially during the transition period.

The main principles of social policy are:

1. protecting living standards by introducing various forms of compensation for price increases and indexing;
2. providing assistance to the poorest families;
3. issuance of assistance in case of unemployment;
4. ensuring a social insurance policy, establishing a minimum wage for workers;
5. development of education, health protection, and the environment mainly at the expense of the state;
6. pursuing an active policy aimed at ensuring qualifications.

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Liberal perspective on the causes of inequality

Reasons for inequality

From the point of view of conflict theory, the cause of inequality is the protection of the privileges of power; whoever controls society and power has the opportunity to benefit personally for himself; inequality is the result of the tricks of influential groups seeking to maintain their status. Robert Michels deduced the iron law of oligarchy: an oligarchy always develops when the size of an organization exceeds a certain value, because 10 thousand people cannot discuss an issue before each case; they entrust the discussion of the issue to the leaders.

According to experts from the international humanitarian organization Oxfam, the reasons for the growth of social inequality in the world since 2010 are as follows:

• evasion of wealthy people from paying taxes by withdrawing funds to offshore companies,
• reduction in workers' wages,
• increasing the difference between the minimum and maximum wage levels.

Changes in the degree of social inequality throughout history

Vilfredo Pareto believed that the degree of economic inequality, the share of rich people in the population, is a constant thing. Karl Marx believed that in the modern world there is a process of economic differentiation - the rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer, the middle class is disappearing. Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin refuted these hypotheses with facts in hand and proved that the level of economic inequality fluctuates over time around one constant value. Too strong an increase in the degree of inequality or equality is equally fraught with national catastrophe and upheaval. Too much inequality makes it easy for a small group of millionaires to be overthrown or destroyed. As the experience of South America has shown, oligarchic regimes are very unstable. The experience of the policy of war communism in Russia showed that after the decree of 1918, when the difference in income was limited to the ratio of 175:100

Max Weber identified three criteria for inequality:

Using the first criterion, the degree of inequality can be measured by differences in income. Using the second criterion - the difference in honor and respect. Using the third criterion - by the number of subordinates. Sometimes there is a contradiction between the criteria, for example, a professor and a priest today have a low income, but enjoy great prestige. The mafia leader is rich, but his prestige in society is minimal. According to statistics, rich people live longer and get sick less. A person's career is influenced by wealth, race, education, parental occupation, and personal ability to lead people. A higher education makes it easier to move up the career ladder in large companies than in small ones.

Figures of inequality

The horizontal width of the figure means the number of people with a given income. At the top of the figure is the elite. Over the past hundred years, Western society has undergone an evolution from a pyramidal structure to a diamond-shaped structure. In the pyramidal structure there is a huge majority of the poor population and a small handful of oligarchs. The diamond structure has a large share of the middle class. A diamond-shaped structure is preferable to a pyramidal one, since a large middle class will not allow a bunch of poor people to start a civil war. And in the first case, the vast majority, consisting of the poor, can easily overturn the social system.