1867. Ethnographic exhibition. "Russian photography". - Digitization of the RSL and RNL April 24th, 2016

Ethnographic exhibition of 1867 of the Society of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography, consisting of Imp. Moscow University: East. sketch of the device Vyst., description and list of items that were at Vyst. and minutes of meetings Com. by device Ext. : Ed. Com. Anthropol. Exhibitions. - Moscow: Type. M.N. Lavrova and Co., 1878. -, II, 93 p., 19 p. ill.; 32. - (Proceedings of the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography; Vol. 29 [issue 1]).
Source: RSL - dlib.rsl.ru/rsl01003000000/rsl01003608000/rsl01003608280/...
I commented on some images of the pages with photographs found in the National Library of Russia...
The description appears after 11 years.
The exhibits are presented in a peculiar way - through the inspection of the exhibition by the royal family...
For example :
... The Sovereign drew attention to the rich costume of the Kazan Tatar and asked: "Is this the costume that you received from Us?"
Having received an affirmative answer, His Majesty was pleased to remark that He found the mannequin's head somewhat large in comparison with the body; the figure of a peasant woman in the Perm province, who is in the same group, the Sovereign found very satisfactory. Then the Sovereign examined the figures of the Minusinsk Tatar woman...

However, I had no intention of being ironic. The whole text is worth studying more carefully. The return after 11 years to the result of the exhibition cannot be accidental. She is unique...

Long URL search results are not accepted by flickr, but here you will be taken to . I decided to post a screenshot of the search results in the Dokusfera in the same album.
I decided to make the explanation like this:
Source of the National Library of Russia, further on the search engine - www.nlr.ru/
In the description of each photo there is the word "photo album", but it is not "collected", and I could only find 14 photos, although the last photo is numbered 39...
flic.kr/s/aHskwvqyqd

"Russian photography in Moscow" - http://www.endic.ru/enc_moscow/Russkaja-fotografija-v-moskve-1917.html
one of the first large photographic firms in Moscow. Founded in 1861 by merchant N.M. Alasin (Volkhonka Street, Kiryakov House), expanded in 1862. At his studio there were two galleries for sessions and one "transfer" (copying). The staff is 18 people (photographer-artist, assistant photographer, 4 artists, bookbinder, lithographer, printing workers, etc.). In 1864, for the photo album "Photographs from Greek miniatures located in the Moscow Synodal, the former patriarchal library," the company received a coat of arms and the title of an art and industrial institution, which gave the right to participate in manufactory exhibitions. By the mid 1860s. Russian Photography in Moscow is one of the most popular photography establishments in the city. Her frequent clients were I.N. Kramskoy, P.M. Tretyakov, Yu.F. Samarin and others. Russian Photography in Moscow carried out photo reproductions of paintings by Russian artists. In 1867 she participated in the All-Russian ethnographic exhibition; she prepared photographic views of Moscow and the album "Views of Moscow and its environs." Russian Photography in Moscow made group photographs of participants in the Slavic Congress in Moscow in 1867. Later, the studio passed to several owners: in 1872-74 it belonged to M.G. Popov, in 1880 it was recreated by P.S. Kulygin.
I. Semakova.
Moscow. Encyclopedic reference book. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia 1992

"OLD MOSCOW" IN THE CONTEXT OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIAN PHOTOGRAPHY (1840-1930) - http://www.photounion.ru/Show_Issue.php?inum=1
Tatyana Saburova. Leading researcher at the State Historical Museum, curator of the fund "Photography of the XIX - early XX centuries." Photographer of the 19th century. Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation
(...)
In the mid 1860s. Photographs of Moscow and its sights were carried out by photographers from the RUSSIAN PHOTOGRAPHY in MOSCOW studio. Its owner was the merchant N.M.ALASIN (1818-?). An album of 14 species was sent by N.M. Alasin to St. Petersburg as a gift to the Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. (Moskovskie Vedomosti. October 19, 1866. No. 219. P.3) Among the photographs is a view of the Moscow Kremlin from Volkhonka Street (possibly from the windows of the filming pavilion of the Russian Photography in Moscow studio), a view of the Main Ap-te- ku, where in 1755 the Moscow University was opened, and the Resurrection Gate from the side of Red Square, etc. In 1867, albums of views were presented to the guests of the Slavic Congress held in Moscow . At the same time, at the All-Russian Ethnographic Exhibition, the works of the studio "Russian Photography in Moscow" were awarded a gold medal. In 1870, the owner of the studio for his work in the genre of landscape photography received one of the main awards at the All-Russian Manufactory Exhibition with the following review: “the choice of points is unusually successful, the general distinctness in all plans, the rare observance of aerial perspective.” (Review of the photographic department. Reports on the UE Department of the Expert Committee of the All-Russian Manufactory Exhibition of 1870 in St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg. 1870. P.4)

The first of May, the Soviet May Day turned into the "Feast of Spring and Labor" and in many ways lost its original political meaning. For most of the country's population, this day is associated exclusively with summer cottages and picnics. remembered the history of the holiday and found out how the May Day demonstrations of the proletarians helped to reduce the working day to the usual 40 hours a week, influencing the historical process.

Bloody May Day

Labor Day is recognized in one way or another by the authorities of almost a hundred countries around the world. True, in some states it is celebrated not on the first day, but on the first Sunday of May, in the USA and Japan - even in the fall. The holiday has different names: International Workers' Day, Spring and Labor Day, Labor Day, Spring Day.

This holiday goes back to the events that took place on May 1, 1886 in Chicago. Then in this city, as well as throughout the country, large-scale rallies and demonstrations of workers turned into clashes with the police. Thousands of American workers demanded better working conditions, in particular, an eight-hour day.

World capitalism, the future pillars of American and European industry, were forged by the hands of workers arriving from the villages, who stood at the machines for 12-16 hours. No social guarantees for the proletarians, the factories often used child labor.

The first days of May 1886 turned out to be especially hot in Chicago (Illinois), which was turning into one of the industrial centers of the country. Strikes and unsanctioned demonstrations by workers engulfed the entire city. Cyrus McCormick's harvester plant fired 1,500 rebellious workers. It caused new wave outrage, as a result, on May 3, at the factory gate, the police opened fire on the troublemakers, killing at least two and injuring dozens of people.

The next day, workers gathered in Haymarket Square for a rally against police violence. But even this seemingly peaceful action ended tragically: an unknown provocateur threw a bomb at the policemen, provoking firing at the crowd. Dozens of people were killed and injured on both sides. The authorities began to pursue the instigators - workers' clubs were closed, the alleged organizers of the protests were detained, several people were sentenced to death.

Get it done in 8 hours

In fact, the Americans were not trendsetters in the fight for workers' rights. Australians demanded the introduction of an eight-hour day as early as 1856. And they continued to do so every year. However, it was the tragic events in Chicago that made Labor Day international.

In July 1889, the Paris Congress of the Second International ( international association Socialist Workers' Parties) in memory of the events in Chicago, proclaimed May 1 the Day of Solidarity of the Workers of the World. In 1890, this holiday was already celebrated in Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Norway, France and some other countries. In Great Britain, the demonstrations took place on the day of the execution of the Chicago demonstrators - May 4th. The basic requirement is the same - the introduction of an eight-hour working day.

In the 19th century, this requirement was met only in New Zealand. In Europe in that era, they worked 8 hours a day, perhaps only at a German factory optical devices Carl Zeiss. The idea belonged to the co-owner of the enterprise, Ernst Abbe, who gained control of the plant after the death of Zeiss himself. Its workers received (unprecedented at that time!) a pension and a 13th salary. Other business leaders were in no hurry to meet the needs of the workers, and the authorities supported them. The owners of "factories, newspapers, steamboats" did not want to reduce working hours while maintaining wages.

In the US, the father of the American auto industry was the pioneer. In 1914, he signed a new collective agreement with the workers, providing for the introduction of an eight-hour working day and a multiple increase in wages. His competitors were twiddling their thumbs, and Ford lured talented engineers from all over the country and significantly increased productivity. One of the last developed countries to legalize the eight-hour working day, ironically, was Australia. It was not until 1947 that a relevant law was passed there.

Overtime has not been canceled

In the USSR, May 1 was traditionally celebrated widely - with thousands of rallies in all major cities. Before the revolution of 1917 in tsarist Russia, workers held rallies, demonstrations and so-called "May Days" (illegal meetings outside the city) on this day, at which the political slogan "Down with the autocracy!" After coming to power, the Bolsheviks declared May 1 an official holiday - the Day of the "International", which in the 1970s was renamed Workers' Solidarity Day. In 1918, the Soviet Union became the first European power to enshrine an eight-hour working day in labor legislation.

However, in the USSR, as in many other countries, the six-day work period continued for a long time with a work duration of 48 hours a week. And May Day before the collapse Soviet Union lost its original meaning - protection labor rights- and was perceived by the population only as an additional day off for a trip to the country or a picnic. This was largely facilitated by the very system of "power of workers and peasants", which seemed to prohibit the exploitation of labor. At the same time, at the Soviet mega-constructions of the White Sea Canal, BAM, the Baikonur cosmodrome, the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, individual Stakhanovite enthusiasts worked for 12 hours "for a great life."

By the beginning of the 21st century, under pressure from trade unions and public organizations With the development of technology, working conditions have also changed. In all developed countries, employees have the right to leave, working hours should not exceed 8 hours a day, child labor is prohibited.

However, problems with ensuring the rights of workers have not disappeared, but only transformed. In a number of countries, including Russia, due to the rapid aging of a significant part of the population, difficulties arise with pension provision discusses raising the retirement age. More and more people are working remotely, the number of freelancers (who do not have a permanent job) is growing, and therefore there is a need to amend labor laws to protect their rights. In addition, workers complain about the inefficiency of labor inspections, unpaid overtime, and gray “envelope” salaries that deprive them of their pension savings.

What was going on in Russia at that time? Here, the duration of working time in the 70s - 80s of the XIX century. was equal to 12-14 hours, and in 1913 - 9-10 hours. Three quarters of women (75.7%) worked 9-10 hours. For comparison, let's say that in Russia the working day was still longer than abroad. So, in 1900, the working day in Australia was 8 hours, Great Britain - 9, USA and Denmark - 9 3/4, Norway - 10, Sweden, France, Switzerland - 10 1/2, Germany - 10 3/4, Belgium , Italy and Austria - 11 hours. All this data can be easily found in any Soviet history textbook. At the beginning of the XX century. the prevailing mass of people worked from 9 to 11 hours, and the proportion of workers with the shortest working hours gradually increased, and with the highest - decreased.

However, in Russia workers different methods consistently fought for their rights and the situation, albeit slowly, changed to the ratio: 8/8/8. And such a requirement seems very reasonable. In fact, any normal person needs good sleep and varied rest, distracting him from work and giving unloading to the brain and body. Formally, we can say that the workers have achieved their goal, and this requirement is being met everywhere today. However, the reality is far from being the case.

Let's think together!

So, all our time can be conditionally divided into working and non-working. According to historians, their ratio - the most important indicator standard of living of a working person. In its turn, non-working hours consists of a number of components: a) the time required to restore strength (sleep); b) the time needed for housekeeping; c) actually free time, leisure.

What is happening today?

According to article 91 of the current Labor Code RF, "working time - the time during which the employee, in accordance with the rules of internal work schedule organization and conditions employment contract must perform labor duties, as well as other periods of time that, in accordance with laws and other regulatory legal acts, are related to working time. Normal hours of work may not exceed 40 hours per week.. Everything seems to be correct: we divide 40 hours a week by 5 working days and get an 8-hour working day. Above - only with the consent of the employee himself.

Naturally, no company will openly violate countries. And officially the working day in all organizations today does not exceed 8 hours. Of course, we are not talking about shift work or work on a special schedule. In this article, we will only touch on the standard 5-day work week. I asked a lot of my friends different specialties working in various positions, ranging from ordinary clerks to top managers. The situation is interesting and everyone is about the same.

During the lunch break, which usually lasts 1 hour, no one rests. Everyone speaks about this about the same: if you have time to find 10-15 minutes to eat - fine, the rest of the time - we work. Therefore, with good reason, one more hour can be added to the working time - the time of the so-called lunch. Next: no one leaves work on time. For example, if the working day is before 18.00, then it is simply not customary to leave before 18.30. In addition, there are really a lot of things to do and they leave mostly at 19.00, that is, an hour later. We add one more hour to the working time. As a result of simple arithmetic calculations, we get 10 hours, and this is the minimum, since sometimes they are delayed by 2-3 hours.

There are only a few lucky people living near their place of work. The rest have to get to the offices for an hour and a half. In Moscow, this is considered normal. Multiply an hour and a half by two to get three hours. Since the time spent on the road cannot be attributed to either sleep or rest, we justifiably add this time to work. It turns out 13 hours. That is, much more than the Russian workers of the early 20th century: from 9 to 11, but closer to 9. By the way, at that time they practically did not spend time on the road, since they usually lived near enterprises, and there were no such distances. But even such a situation was considered exploitation of the workers, leading to their early aging.

There are 24 hours in a day and no more. We subtract 13 hours of work from this, 11 hours remain. During this time, as already mentioned, you need to: sleep, do housework and relax.

Let's start with sleep. According to doctors, the average person needs to sleep at least 8 hours a day. This is considered a full sleep, during which the body fully restores its strength. Scientists of the Faculty of Medicine University of Pennsylvania tested people sleeping less than 8 hours a day. The results of the tests showed that those who slept less than 8 hours had reduced thinking ability and memory, and to the same extent as people who did not sleep for two nights. Although subjectively, subjects whose sleep was at least 4 hours felt less tired than those who did not sleep at all. But in reality, their body was seriously depleted. That is, "lack of sleep" in its devastating consequences for the human body is comparable to a complete lack of sleep. Thus, people who sleep little in 98 percent of cases are engaged in self-deception and put their body in serious danger. In addition, an insufficient amount of time for sleep leads to malfunctions in the immune system, mental fatigue, loss of the ability to adequately perceive reality. The opinion that it is possible to accustom the body to get by with four to five hours of uninterrupted sleep without encountering any negative consequences, physicians consider fundamentally erroneous.

Recently, Dr. Tobjorn Akerstedt and colleagues from Karolinska Institute surveyed more than 5,000 people working in 40 different companies and found that 30% of them have some kind of work-related health problem. Most often, these problems were sleep disorders - due to the need to work in the evening and at night, 7% of study participants fall asleep several times a month right at the workplace, and 23% - at home watching TV or reading newspapers.

"Maximum risk group", as expected, was represented by young people aged 25-30 years, occupying white-collar positions (accountants, managers, etc.), concerned career growth and devoting as much time as possible to work. According to the authors of this study, sleep disturbances caused by excessive work not only negatively affect the health of the employees themselves, but also pose a danger to society as a whole.

With all of the above in mind, from the remaining 11 hours of free time, subtract 8 for a full-fledged healthy sleep, only 3 hours left. Of course, if you are not a woman burdened with family and household chores, then you can spend these 3 hours on rest: read, watch TV, go to the cinema or theater, chat with friends. Not much, of course, but at least something. And if you are the aforementioned woman, then the remaining 3 hours will hardly be enough for you to do household chores and communicate with children. After all, the working day for women is the same as for men. But the traditional roles in the family have not changed since pre-revolutionary times.

What do you want say in conclusion? The main economic demand put forward by the working people at the beginning of the last century is reasonable and legitimate. All experts consider the following to be the normal ratio in the mode of work, sleep and rest: 8/8/8. In reality, this is not even close. A life modern man almost 2/3 consists of work. Do you think this is normal? Personally, I don't!

The eight-hour workday remains the accepted standard in the corporate world, but does it make sense? Writer Srinivas Rao gave seven reasons why tight work hours prevent us from performing at our best.

We are so fed up with this outdated attribute of the corporate world that it has found its way into the culture - think of books such as Escape from Cubicle Nation, The 4-Hour Workweek and movies like Office Space. Entrepreneurship and side jobs allow you to escape from what seems more like a cage than a job that you want to return to every day. Giving up more money in favor of personal freedom has become the zeitgeist.

Of course, there are still places where people like to work. But, nevertheless, the eight-hour working day does not work, because our brains are not adapted to this and we live in an information economy, not an industrial one.

1. It's outdated

The eight-hour day was a by-product of the industrial revolution. Making parts in a factory cannot be attributed to hard mental or creative work. Thus, it made sense to maximize the productivity of the assembly lines and the length of the working day, as long as it did not threaten the physical health of the workers.

Even the educational system has been upgraded so that people get used to the eight-hour work day. If the school ended at 3 pm, the students went to extra classes so that they would become accustomed to being in the same place from 9 am to 5 pm. But the fact is that the industrial revolution ended more than 50 years ago.

2. Our brain is capable of doing hard mental work for no more than two hours in a row.

Years of studying experts in their fields have shown Anders Ericsson that the best specialists unable to withstand high intensity work and concentration for more than two hours.

If the brightest people in all industries can only work at their best for a couple of hours, how effective is it to keep workers in one place for eight hours? It doesn't seem like much. At a certain point, the return on our efforts begins to wane in both quantity and quality. In economics, this phenomenon is known as the law of diminishing returns. This is also true for an eight-hour working day, since not all hours of the day are equally favorable for work.

When my content specialist and I were shooting a new online course, he quickly calculated my biorhythms. We agreed that we would shoot from ten in the morning until one in the afternoon. After that time, the quality of our work gradually declined. If the first three hours of a work day were the most productive, the last three hours were the most meaningless.

Photo: struvictory/Shutterstock

3. Everyone peaks at different times

With demanding physical or mental work, most people perform best either at the beginning of the day (larks) or at the end (owls). These individual characteristics are embedded in our unique biorhythms - at what time hormones associated with energy and concentration are produced, at what hours the body temperature rises or falls.

Another erroneous argument in favor of the eight-hour working day is that supposedly all people live in the same rhythm. For some people, getting up at five o'clock in the morning is a trifling matter. For some, it is sheer horror. We all peak at different times of the day, but the concept of an eight-hour workday does not take this into account. Perhaps some people do not reach their peak performance at work at all, because they are forced to be there at a specific eight hours.

4. The quality of your time is more important than the quantity.

Many people believe that the connection between time and productivity really exists. For some reason, we began to think that the result of our work is directly proportional to the time spent on it. If you spend only an hour a day on creative work, but at that hour you are completely immersed in work, the output from this work will be much higher. The intensity and concentration is much more important than that how much time you spent. In the realities of the information economy, it is completely pointless to evaluate a person's work by how much time he spent sitting at the office desk.

5. Willpower

For eight hours, people have to make hundreds of decisions, and this process completely depletes their reserves of willpower. Roy Baumeister's study showed that people whose parole hearings were held before lunchtime were much more likely to get a positive decision than those whose hearings were held after lunchtime. The reason is that by the afternoon the judges had time to issue too many verdicts, fatigue set in and the ability to make decisions weakened. One way to maintain your willpower is to limit the amount of things you can do each day and develop a routine that you can follow every day.

6. Insight doesn't happen while you're sitting at your desk.

In the connected economy, as writer and entrepreneur Seth Godin has called it, maximizing productivity is no longer so important. Innovation and creativity are at the forefront. It is unlikely that creative insight can be caused by sitting at the computer for eight hours in a row.

The best ideas come when we're doing something completely unrelated to work, like surfing, snowboarding, showering, or walking on the beach.

Photo: Joshua Earl/Unsplash

Creative insight most often occurs during non-work hours and is the end of a long incubation period. You need to get new information, process it and then come up with something new. As Harvard scholar Srini Pillay writes, “It is not only the wandering mind that can activate creative thinking, but also the wandering body.”

7. The 8-hour workday confuses "busy" and "productive"

Mental work is not an assembly line, and being busy hinders rather than helps you extract value from information.

A few weeks before I was about to leave my job and go to business school, I decided to see what would happen if I stopped doing business at work. I knew I was going to quit in a few weeks anyway, so I didn't risk anything.

I devoted most of every day to watching the series "24" on my player. For about half an hour a day, I answered letters and inquiries from clients. Prior to this experiment, I was involved in a productivity plan. After that, the authorities began to praise me and set me as an example to others as a true leader.

This is a great example of how we confuse busyness with productivity.

According to Parkinson's Law, any task will take us exactly as much time as we plan. Therefore, it is quite possible that the things that we manage to do in an eight-hour working day can be fit in four hours. If there's any chance of increasing efficiency, productivity, and returns by doing less, then it's definitely worth a try.

On November 11, 1917, an event took place that changed the lives of millions of Russian workers, and which is regrettably little remembered today. On this day, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree on an 8-hour working day.

By that time, the struggle for the reduction of working hours had been going on in all industrial countries for more than a decade. Back in 1810, the English utopian socialist Robert Owen formulated the slogan: "8 hours for work, 8 for rest, 8 for sleep." Since then, three eights have become a kind of emblem of the trade union movement. Since 1890, May 1, symbolizing the solidarity of the workers of the whole world in the struggle for the right to rest, was met with strikes and demonstrations on all inhabited continents. The resistance of employers to the introduction of the 8-hour working day was fierce, but the fear of the governments of strikes and the spread of socialist ideas among workers led to the adoption of laws that, to one degree or another, limited the norm of working hours. In tsarist Russia, the working day for adult men was set at 11.5 hours (since 1897), but in fact, Russian workers achieved much more through strikes. If by 1900 the average working day in the manufacturing industry averaged 11.2 hours, then in 1904 it was already 10.5 hours a day, and in 1908 in the factories of the Moscow province it was 9.5 hours. By the time the decree was adopted, the overwhelming majority of enterprises in St. Petersburg had introduced an 8-hour working day without prior notice. The October Revolution only consolidated this victory and made it a legislative norm.

However, the revolutionary nature of the Decree of November 11 is an indisputable fact. After all, despite the fact that for the first time the 8-hour working day was legally fixed in Australia in 1848, most industrialized countries came to this much later. Separate trade unions or industries switched to the 8-hour day as early as the 19th century (for example, the American miners' union won it in 1898, the printing workers in 1905). Ford, which introduced the 8-hour day in 1914, contrary to popular myth, was far from the first. But at the legislative level, this norm was enshrined in France - in 1936 (by the left government of the Popular Front), in the USA - in 1937 (as part of Roosevelt's New Deal), in Japan - in 1947. It is significant that the laws on the 8-hour working day were adopted earlier than others not in the richest and most stable capitalist countries, but where the working class took an active part in the revolutions. In Mexico, engulfed by the civil war, the reduction of the working day to 8 hours occurred, as in Russia, in 1917, 20 years earlier than in the United States. In Germany, a shorter working day was introduced during the November Revolution of 1918.

In the early years Soviet power workers' rights were regarded as one of the most important achievements of October and served as a kind of showcase for the new social system. The writer Varlam Shalamov recalled his work in the 1920s at a private tannery in the Moscow region: “There was no piece work then. They worked strictly for eight hours. 45 rubles of the tanner's salary gave me the opportunity to send home, and buy clothes, and pay for the table. In 1928-1933. the transition to a 7-hour working day with a 42-hour working week was carried out. In the early 1930s, a five-day work cycle was introduced (a five-day working day with the sixth day off). Work time per week was 41 hours, but in 1940 it increased again to 48 hours. A five-day week with two days off with a norm of working hours - 41 per week was enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR in 1977, and the forty-hour working time limit was introduced only in April 1991. Of course, all these innovations descended "from above" (from the 30s to the era of Perestroika, independent labor movement practically absent in the Soviet Union), but the decree of November 11, 1917, which became the result of many years of heroic struggle of the Russian proletariat, laid the basis for the legislative limitation of working hours.

Is this fight over? Certainly not. In today's Russia low salaries, the arbitrariness of employers and the loss of the traditions of the class struggle have led to the fact that for many working people the slogan of Robert Owen seems to be the same utopia as in 1810. From the side of business, complaints are constantly heard about “low labor productivity” and “obsolescence” labor law. A few years ago, a lot of noise was caused by the draft amendments to the Labor Code proposed by the oligarch Prokhorov, which provided for the introduction of a 60-hour work week (as in the United States late XIX century). In 2013, the 8-hour working day, which had been in force since 1919, was actually abolished in Poland. At the same time, in many European countries there is a struggle for a 35-hour work week. In France, with its strong trade union and left movement, this demand has already become a reality. World tendencies in this area are contradictory, but one thing remains unchanged: the position of the working class, in the final analysis, depends on the degree of its organization and readiness to fight for its interests.

Ivan Ovsyannikov