home Converter Individual differences in perception and its development in children. Individual differences in perception

Individual differences in perception and its development in children. Individual differences in perception

In perception appear individual characteristics people, which are explained by the whole history of the formation of each personality and the nature of its activities. First of all, two types of people are distinguished according to their individual type of perception˸ analytical and synthetic.

For people analytical type of perception is characterized by attention to particulars, details, individual features of an object or phenomenon. Only then do they move on to identifying common points.

People synthetic types of perception show more attention to the whole, to the main thing in an object or phenomenon, sometimes to the detriment of the perception of particular features. If the first type is more attentive to the facts, then the second - to their meaning.

However, much depends on knowledge about the object of perception and on the goal facing the person. The type of perception is less apparent in involuntary perception and in those cases where a person is faced with the goal of comparing two objects. Psychological research to identify types of perception convincingly showed that some subjects mainly highlight the "absolute" properties of objects, while others - mainly the relationship between these properties. The first is typical for analytical type, the second - for synthetic type .

Perception is influenced by feelings experienced by a person. People who are highly emotional and impressionable are much more likely to see objective factors in the light of their personal experiences, their likes and dislikes. Thus, they unwittingly introduce a touch of subjectivism into the description and evaluation of objective facts. Such people are classified as a subjective type of perception, in contrast to the objective type, which is characterized by greater accuracy both in relationships and in assessments.

Individual differences in perception - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Individual differences in perception" 2015, 2017-2018.

Perception and observation of a person are characterized by both general patterns and individual characteristics. All people are characterized by common manifestations of the psyche, due to which the main laws of reality are reflected. The presence of common in ... .

- Individual differences in perception

In perception, individual characteristics of people are manifested, which are explained by the entire history of the formation of each personality and the nature of its activity. First of all, two types of people are distinguished according to their individual type of perception: analytical and synthetic. For... .

- Individual differences in perception and observation

Having become acquainted with how complex the process of perception is, we can easily understand that it proceeds differently for different people. Each person has his own individual "manner" to perceive, his usual methods of observation, which are explained by the general features of his ... .

- Perception. Neurophysiological basis of perception. Classification of perception. General patterns of perception. Individual differences in perception.

Perception is a direct, sensual reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness, their identifying features. Perceptual images are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to the simple sum of these sensations. Perception... .

- Types of perceptions. Individual differences in perception.

Based on modern psychological literature, there are several approaches to the classification of perception. One of the classifications of perception, as well as sensations, is based on differences in the analyzers involved in perception. According to what... .

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception makes possible a holistic reflection of the world, the creation of an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality.

The result of perception is an integral, holistic image of the surrounding world, arising from the direct impact of the stimulus on the subject's sense organs. It is a mistake to believe that perception is a mere summation of individual sensations. In addition to sensations, the previous experience is involved in the process of perception, the processes of understanding what is perceived, i.e. the process of perception includes mental processes of an even higher level, such as memory and thinking. Therefore, perception is very often called the human perceptual system.

The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception, activity.

Objectivity of perception is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. Subjectivity is not innate property perception, the emergence and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis, starting from the first year of a child's life. The possibility of objective perception is due to the presence of a motor component in the process of perception. So, having heard a sound or smelled, we make certain approximate movements in relation to the source of irritation.

Another property of perception is integrity. Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of the object. It is formed on the basis of generalization of information received in the form of various sensations about the individual properties and qualities of the object. The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or individual parts of the object directly affect a person.

With the integrity of perception is connected and its structure. This property lies in the fact that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time. For example, if a person listens to some melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when information about the sound of a new note arrives.

The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions for their perception change. For example, a truck moving in the distance will still be perceived by us as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand near it.

Perception depends not only on the nature of the stimulus, but also on the subject himself. They perceive not the eye and ear, but a concrete living person. Therefore, perception always affects the characteristics of a person's personality. The dependence of perception on the general content of our mental life is called apperception. Perception activates past experience. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people. A significant place in apperception is occupied by attitudes and emotions that can change the content of perception. So, the mother of a sleeping child may not hear the noise of the street, but instantly reacts to any sound coming from the side of the child.

The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As we have already said, the perception of a person is closely connected with thinking. The connection between thinking and perception is primarily expressed in the fact that to consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. refer to a certain group, class, associate it with a certain word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to establish in it a resemblance to other objects. Therefore, perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the senses, but is a constant search for the best interpretation of the available data.

Activity (or selectivity) lies in the fact that at any given time we perceive only one object or specific group objects, while other objects of the real world are the background of our perception, i.e. not reflected in our minds.

For example, you are listening to a lecture or reading a book and do not pay any attention to what is happening behind you.

Differences in life experience, in knowledge, views, interests, in the emotional attitude of people to objects and phenomena of reality give rise to significant individual differences in perception. They affect both the completeness, accuracy and speed of perception, as well as the nature of its generalization and emotional coloring. Depending on the skills and habits acquired in the experience, and, consequently, on the previously formed systems of temporary connections, different types of perception are formed. In some people, perception is characterized by greater integrity and emotionality with less pronounced analysis (synthetic type of perception). For others, perceptions are more analytic with less pronounced concreteness and integrity of perception (analytical type of perception). Finally, in people of the third type, perceptions are specific, holistic, and at the same time analytical (analytical-synthetic type of perception). Representatives of the first type pay more attention to facts; representatives of the second type - on the meaning and explanation of facts; the third type combines the observation and description of facts with their explanation. Extreme types of perception are less common than the average - analytic-synthetic type of perception.

Significant individual differences in perception are created by the degree of differentiation and generalization of previously formed systems of temporary connections. Insufficient differentiation of temporary connections leads to incompleteness and inaccuracy of perceptions, which are usually supplemented by various subjective additions, which is especially often observed with increased emotional excitability of a person. Subjective distortions of perception can also arise as a result of the formation of inert stereotypes, i.e., strong, but inactive and difficult to change systems of temporary connections. Such hard-to-change, inert stereotypes are expressed in biased views, often distorting perception, making it one-sided.

Each of us comprehends the world based on the information provided to us by the five classical senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste. True, there are many contenders for the role of the sixth (seventh, eighth and beyond) sense; the main one is kinesthetic sensations (sensations of movement and position of one's own body, as well as muscle efforts). The image of the world that arises in a person on the basis of our sensations seems natural, understandable and the only possible one. And almost the same - the only possible, well-established and monumental - may seem to be the psychology of perception - a classic object of interest for scientific psychology for more than a hundred years, since its very birth. And it turned out that new discoveries were made in this “classical” area, somewhat shaking our ideas about the “only possible” image of the world. These discoveries are associated with the now fashionable Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP).

The founders of NLP, John Grinder and Richard Bandler, a computer scientist and linguist, are not scientists but pragmatists. Asked why some therapists are successful in helping people and others are not, they did not delve into the jungle of theories or talk about the wonderful gift and intuition. They took a different path: observing and analyzing the work of the best psychotherapists of the 1970s, they tried to isolate the constituent elements of their success, that is, to understand "how they do what they do." Distinguished. Systematized. Created technology successful behavior and communication. Checked - it works. They did not become interested in how what they had achieved correlated with established psychological knowledge and theories: what difference does it make if it works. Explained to others. They began to distribute - an unheard-of success came.

The notion of representational systems that determine individual differences in perception and other cognitive processes is one of the achievements of NLP. In order to understand what is behind the beautiful phrase "representative system", read excerpts from a conversation with a nine-year-old girl, Xenia. Try to imagine her world as vividly as possible. What is he?

- Ksenia, please tell us what you want.
- I don't know... Okay... I'll tell you how my grandfather and I went to the forest. We entered the forest and followed the path. THORNY, sun-dried branches SHATTED us in the face. Then black clouds appeared and it began to rain. I FELT drops falling on me. Thunderstorm began. It was scary.
- Were you afraid of bright lightning or thunder?
- No, why be afraid of thunder?
- Why is it scary?
It's just scary, that's all. And something else could FALL on me: a branch or even a tree. Everything around was torn apart. Such an UNPLEASANT MUD around. We walked through fallen trees overgrown with moss and tree mushrooms. Green frogs jumped around us. It's good for frogs - they LIKE MOKRYATIN, and they are not at all afraid ...
- Ksenia, tell us how you went to visit.
- I will describe their apartment: dark, stuffy, UNVENTILATED, and a big cat lives with them - they SMELL ...
- Do you like to dress up?
- I can not stand. They tortured the poor child. Bought a jacket yesterday. They put one on me: “Look, what a fashionable style! Look how it goes! And this jacket has SLEEVES LIKE CUFFS.
- What cuffs?
- from the apparatus with which the pressure is measured.
- Did you buy a jacket?
- This one is not, they bought another, very SOFT.

Xenia's world is a world of prickly branches and wet drops, stuffy rooms, tight or soft jackets. Ksenia is a KINESTHETIC, that is, body sensations, movements, touches, as well as smells and tastes are of the greatest importance for her consciousness.

And now - the world of eleven-year-old Sasha.

- Please tell us how you like to spend your free time.
- I sometimes with friends, and sometimes with a dog I like to go for a walk in the forest. I can wander for hours, LISTENING TO THE SOUNDS OF NATURE: either the RUSHING of LEAVES on the trees, or the CHIRTING OF BIRDS. There is a small BURBLING RIVER in the forest. There are almost no people where I walk, so YOU FEEL SUCH PLEASURE EVEN FROM THE SILENCE OF THE FOREST.

In general, I experience great joy from COMMUNICATION with friends. We exchange cassettes, it happens that we go to CONCERTS. I really like the GROUPS "Time Machine", "Black Sabbat", "Aria". When I LISTEN to such music, I am overwhelmed by a feeling of extraordinary joy, inner uplift.

- What is your favourite subject?
- I love history and foreign languages. From history you learn how people lived before. Foreign - for the ability to COMMUNICATE with people in another language.

The boy has a well-developed kinesthetic system: the constant refrain in his story is the words “I feel”, “covers the feeling”. And yet, it is primarily an AUDIAL, that is, it relies on auditory information in comprehending the world. His world is the world of nature sounds and favorite rock bands, the joy of communication (conversation) with friends. His favorite subjects provide an opportunity to communicate (in another language) or learn interesting stories(how people used to live).

In addition to kinesthetics and auditory, it is customary to single out also VISUALS - for their consciousness, visual information is of primary importance. Thus, there are three types of people, distinguished by the type of LEAD REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM.

The predominance of one or another type of representative system can be expressed very clearly, and maybe quite weakly. The first is more characteristic of young children, who first develop only one of the representative systems (more often - kinesthetic) and only then - the second and third. For example, nine-year-old Xenia, along with kinesthetic, has vivid visual and auditory images. Here is a conversation with six-year-old Kolya. Please note that even individual calls to the visual system are quickly translated into a kinesthetic code familiar to the boy.

- Kolya, what do you like to do most of all?
- Sports, skiing. You can ride them down the hill, work out. Play, accelerate, ride at speed and you can steer from the hill, like in a car.
- What else do you like to do?
- Charging. There are a lot of exercises there. Especially rope crawling. I like that you can sit at a height, it's so interesting.
- Why is it interesting to sit at a height?
- Everything is seen.
- What do you see?
- Well, you'll be older than everyone.
- Do you want to be older than everyone?
- Yes. To be tall. To GET to the sky and REMOVE the sun from there ...
- Imagine this situation: you are alone in the forest and get lost. How will you get out, find your way home?
- You can tell by the tree. SEE where there is more moss, where there is less. Where there is less moss - there is the north, where there is more - there is the south.
- And where shall we go?
- Let's go along the road WHERE YOU ALREADY WALKED.

What determines in a person's life his leading representative system? Firstly, it determines what information from the surrounding world is assimilated most easily and quickly, what aspects of it will be first of all paid attention to. Let's say a child sees a new interesting toy in the store. The visual will try to see it properly. The auditory will begin to ask what it is, what the toy is for and how to play with it. The kinesthetic person will try to hold and touch the toy. Most likely, these three will prefer different things: visual - a bright and beautiful toy, kinesthetic - soft or pleasant to the touch. As for the auditory, if there is no sounding or talking toy in the store, he may prefer to choose a character from a fairy tale or cartoon - someone with whom some interesting story is connected.

The second difference associated with the leading representational system is the preferred form of storing information in memory and the ease of retrieval from memory. different types information. Let's say, thinking about a loved one, one will remember, first of all, his face, the other - the voice, and the third - the softness of the hands or the smell.

The third important aspect of representational systems is the ease of handling different types information in the process of mental activity. Consider, for example, the process of choosing the right road in an unfamiliar area. The visual will try to stock up on a plan and navigate by it. If there is no plan, he will try to imagine the area as best as possible and choose a road based on its visual image. Audial will question passers-by. The kinesthetic person is likely to look for the right way, moving in different directions until it reaches the target. However, it is not always possible to choose the optimal way of presenting information. For example, in the process of schooling, it is easier for the visual to learn new material from the blackboard or from a book, and for the auditory - from the teacher's explanation. But the teacher will choose only one thing (what exactly will most likely depend on his own leading system). Kinesthetics are almost no opportunities modern system does not provide education. However, among younger children school age it is kinesthetics that turns out to be the most. Therefore, many difficulties in the initial stages of education are determined by the fact that the form of education does not agree well with the leading representative system of the child. Such difficulties should be overcome by developing all three representative systems and forming the skills of recoding information from one system to another. This is exactly what happens spontaneously in the first years of schooling.

Finally, representational systems largely determine what images emotions and feelings, experiences and internal states are translated into, as well as the “language” in which we try to tell others about them. So, about the same state, three people with different leading systems will say completely differently. Visual: "When I look into my future, it seems unclear to me." Auditory: "I can't say anything about my future." Kinesthetic: "I can't feel what's about to happen."

How difficult it is to understand each other, even for the closest people, if they have different representational systems, is evidenced by the following example given by Grinder and Bandler.

A kinesthetic husband comes home from work tired and wants comfort. He sits down in an armchair, takes off his shoes, covers himself with newspapers and magazines. The visual wife enters. She cleaned the house all day to make everything look good. She sees things scattered all over the room and explodes. The husband complains: “She does not give me a place in the house where I can comfortably settle down. It's my house. I want comfort!” In order for the spouses to understand each other, it is necessary to find a kinesthetic correspondence to visual complaints. For example, like this: “You really don’t understand what your wife is going through. Imagine that you come to the bedroom in the evening to go to bed, and your wife is sitting in bed eating cookies. You lie down and feel the crumbs dig into your skin. Do you now know what she feels when she enters the living room and sees the scattered things?

To speak with the interlocutor in the "language" of his leading representative system means to maintain close contact with him and achieve mutual understanding. The skills of conducting such a conversation are important for practical psychologists and everyone who works with people.

Thus, taking into account the individual characteristics of perception makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of training and the organization of cognitive activity, as well as to improve mutual understanding between people.

NLP specialists determine the leading representational system from eye movements, which, however, requires special training. Less accurately, but still possible to determine the leading representational system according to the characteristics of speech and behavior.

Perception and observation of a person are characterized by both general patterns and individual characteristics. All people are characterized by common manifestations of the psyche, due to which the reflection of the basic laws of reality takes place. The presence of something in common in reflective mental activity makes it possible for people to understand each other, to come to understandable conclusions for all, to objectively reflect the world around them.

Perceives and observes a specific person. Therefore, in the process of perception and observation, each of us discovers his individual characteristics. This is due to the mental make-up of the personality, apperception. Individual characteristics may also depend on differences in the integration and functioning of the sense organs. This determines visual acuity, hearing sensitivity, subtlety of smell, taste, touch.

Individual features give the perception of each person a special color, make the reflection individually unique. The individual nature of perceptions and observations is manifested in their dynamics, accuracy, depth, degree of generalization and in the features of emotional coloring.

In human practice and in the psychological study of the characteristics of people's perception, knowledge has developed about the following basic types of perception and observation: synthetic, analytical, analytical-synthetic and emotional.

In people synthetic type, there is a clear tendency to generalize the reflection of phenomena and to determine the main meaning of what is happening. They do not attach importance to details and do not like to go into them.

People analytical types to a lesser extent show a tendency to a generalized description of the phenomena of reality. They are characterized by the desire to single out and analyze, first of all, details, particulars. They scrupulously delve into all circumstances, details. Exaggeratedly attentive to details, such people often find it difficult to understand the main meaning of phenomena.

In people analytical-synthetic the type of perception and observation equally reveals the desire to understand the basic meaning of the phenomenon and its actual confirmation. Such people always relate the analysis of individual parts to the conclusions, the establishment of facts - to their explanation. This type is more common in life than others. The perception and observation of people of such a warehouse is the most favorable for activity.

People emotional types of perception - those that are characterized not so much by highlighting the essence of the phenomenon and its particulars, but by the desire, first of all, to express their experiences caused by this phenomenon.

Psychological research to identify types of perception has convincingly shown that some subjects mainly highlight the "absolute" properties of objects, while others - mainly the relationship between these properties. The first is typical for analytical type, the second - for synthetic type . With this in mind, two types of people are distinguished: analytical and synthetic types of perception. For some, the fact or event itself is important, while for others, how it happened.

LECTURE 7

Subject: ATTENTION

1. The concept of attention.

2. Functions and theories of attention.

3. Types and basic properties of attention.

4. Development of attention.

THE CONCEPT OF ATTENTION

A person is constantly exposed to many different stimuli. Human consciousness is not able to cover all these objects simultaneously with sufficient clarity. Of the many surrounding objects, objects and phenomena, a person selects those that are of interest to him, correspond to his needs and life plans. Any human activity requires the selection of an object and focus on it. Attention called the orientation and concentration of consciousness on certain objects or certain activities while abstracting from everything else.

It is known that if a person does not mobilize his attention, then mistakes are inevitable in his work, and inaccuracies and gaps in perception. Without focusing, we can:

Ø look and not see,

Ø listen and not hear,

Ø eat and not taste.

Attention has great importance for humans because:

1. Attention organizes our psyche for all kinds of sensations.

2. Attention related orientation and selectivity of cognitive processes

3.Attention are defined:

Ø accuracy and detail of perception (attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish image details);

Ø strength and selectivity of memory (attention acts as a factor contributing to the preservation of the necessary information in short-term and operative memory);

Ø direction and productivity of thinking (attention acts as a mandatory factor in the correct understanding and solution of the problem).

4. In the system of interpersonal relations attention contributes to a better understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. An attentive person achieves more in life than an inattentive one.

In perception, individual characteristics of people are manifested, which are explained by the entire history of the formation of each personality and the nature of its activity. First of all, there are two types of perception: analytical and synthetic.

For people analytical type of perception characterized by attention to particulars, details, individual features of an object or phenomenon. Only then do they move on to identifying common points. For people synthetic type of perception characteristic is attention to the whole, that is, to the main thing in an object or phenomenon, sometimes to the detriment of the perception of particular features. If people of the first type are more attentive to facts, then people of the second are more attentive to their meaning.

However, much depends on knowledge about the object and the goal facing the person. The type of perception is less apparent in involuntary perception and in those cases where a person is faced with the goal of comparing two objects. Psychological research to identify types of perception has convincingly shown that some subjects mainly highlight the "absolute" properties of objects, while others - mainly the relationship between these properties. The first is characteristic of the analytical type, the second of the synthetic type.

Perception is influenced by feelings experienced by a person. People who are highly emotional and impressionable are much more likely to see objective factors in the light of their personal experiences, likes and dislikes. Thus, they unwittingly introduce a touch of subjectivism into the description and evaluation of objective facts. Such people are classified as a subjective type of perception, in contrast to the objective type, which is characterized by greater accuracy in relationships and assessments.

Attention

Attention called the orientation and concentration of consciousness on certain objects or certain activities while abstracting from everything else.

Attention is necessary both in perception, and in thinking, and in action. For example, you can carefully examine a picture, listen to a lecture, solve a mathematical problem, perform the necessary movements when writing, drawing, modeling, etc.

A person is constantly exposed to many different stimuli. Human consciousness is not able to cover all these objects simultaneously with sufficient clarity. Therefore, on the one hand, from the many surrounding objects, objects and phenomena, a person selects those that are of interest to him, correspond to his needs and life plans. On the other hand, in each this moment the content of mental activity is associated with relatively a small amount events or actions. So, out of a large number of stimuli acting on a person at a given moment, he perceives not all, but only a small number. Perceiving one stimulus with attention, he simultaneously does not perceive at all or perceives indistinctly the rest, which are not related to his activity at the moment.

With attention, mental activity becomes more organized. Thus, perception due to attention is always distinguished by an ordered character: we perceive only what is related to the task that confronts us, we are not distracted by side stimuli, due to which we perceive objects and phenomena with greater clarity. With auditory perception, thanks to attention, we notice the smallest sounds, and exactly those that need to be heard, while being distracted from extraneous sounds. When the doctor carefully listens to the patient, he hears a lot of sounds and accurately distinguishes them, separating the tones of the right ventricle of the heart from the tones emanating from the valves of the left, etc.

Attention is also of organizing importance in the processes of thinking. When thinking is accompanied by focused attention, it proceeds more orderly: thoughts go in a certain sequence, each thought naturally follows from another thought, they are linked to each other according to essential features, thinking acquires a harmonious character. When attention is weakened, thinking becomes disorganized: the course of thought processes is characterized by a lack of harmony, frequent distractions of thought are observed, random connections are established according to insignificant signs, etc. In the absence of attention, for example, in a state of drowsiness, the course of thoughts becomes chaotic, they are connected with each other randomly, replace each other by purely mechanical associative connections, unplanned, disorderly.

Outwardly, attention is expressed in movements with the help of which we adapt to the best performance of the required actions. At the same time, unnecessary movements that interfere with this activity are slowed down. So, if we need to carefully examine an object, we turn our head in its direction. This adaptive movement facilitates perception. When we listen attentively to something, we also tilt our head accordingly. Due to the presence of such adaptive movements, one can judge the attention of a person by his appearance; we can say that this person is thinking carefully, that one is listening attentively, the third one is watching attentively, the fourth one is working attentively, etc.

Thus, attention increases the efficiency of any mental and motor activity. It is expressed primarily in a clearer and more distinct flow of mental processes and in the exact performance of the actions associated with it. With careful perception, the resulting images are more clear and distinct. In the presence of attention, the processes of thinking, analysis, generalization proceed quickly and correctly. In actions accompanied by attention, movements are performed accurately and clearly. This clarity and distinctness is achieved by the fact that in the presence of attention, mental activity proceeds with greater intensity than in its absence.

It can be stated that there is always attention concentration mental activity on certain objects and at the same time abstraction from other objects. It can be said, therefore, that attention has selective character: we choose from a large number of objects some on which our mental activity is concentrated. Thanks to this, with attention, a certain orientation activities.

It is known that if a person does not mobilize his attention, then mistakes are inevitable in his work, and inaccuracies and gaps in perception. Without focusing, we can:

o look and not see,

o listen and not hear,

o eat and not taste.

Attention is of great importance for a person because:

1. Attention organizes the human psyche for all kinds of sensations.

2. Attention related orientation and selectivity of cognitive processes.

3. Attention is given to:

o accuracy and detail of perception(attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish image details);

o strength and selectivity of memory(attention acts as a factor contributing to the preservation of the necessary information in short-term and operative memory);

o direction and productivity of thinking ( attention acts as an obligatory factor in the correct understanding and solution of the problem).

Main Functions attention in sensory, mnemonic and thought processes, as well as in the system of interpersonal relations are the following:

a) selection of significant (i.e. corresponding to the needs of this activity) impacts and ignoring others - insignificant, side, competing;

b) retention of this activity , preservation in the mind of images of a certain content until the completion of the activity, the achievement of the goal;

in) regulation and control over the course of the activity.

Attention is inextricably linked to consciousness generally. This connection is revealed in the most famous psychological theories of attention.

properties of attention.

Considering the properties of attention, we note that main properties of attention are: concentration, stability, volume, distribution, switchability .

attention span- this is keeping attention on one object or one action while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention depends on age and work experience (increases slightly over the years), as well as on the state of the nervous system (with a slight neuropsychic tension, it slightly increases, and with high tension, it decreases).

Focused called attention directed to any one object or type of action. For example, a person can concentrate on writing, listening, reading, doing some work, watching a sporting event, etc.

In all these cases, his attention is focused only on one given type of activity and does not extend to others: when we read intently, we do not notice what is happening around us and often do not even hear the questions addressed to us.

Concentrated attention is characterized by pronounced outward signs. It is expressed in the appropriate posture, facial expressions, inhibition of all unnecessary movements. All these external features are of great adaptive importance, facilitating concentration.

Concentrated attention is characterized by a high degree of intensity, which makes it necessary condition the success of performing certain types of activities that are important for a person: a student needs focused attention at a lesson, an athlete at the start, a surgeon during an operation, etc., since only with focused attention can these types of activities be performed successfully.

indicator concentration, or concentration, attention is its noise immunity, determined by the strength of an extraneous stimulus that can divert attention from the subject of activity. The more focused attention, the higher the prerequisite for more accurate and successful performance of activities, and therefore less fatigue.

The opposite of concentration is such a property of attention as distraction. Psychologists distinguish ordinary absent-mindedness (a state of attention when it does not focus on one object, but involuntarily moves to others) and imaginary, or "professional" (manifested in deep concentration on one thing, when a person does not notice anything else).

Sustainability of attention this is the duration of focusing on an object or phenomenon or holding the required intensity of attention for a long time . Stability of attention is determined by various reasons:

First, the individual physiological characteristics of the body. Especially affect the properties of the nervous system and the general state of the body at a given time.

Secondly, the mental state (excitation, lethargy, etc.);

Thirdly, motivation (the presence or absence of interest in the subject of activity, its significance for the individual);

Fourth, external circumstances in the implementation of activities.

Stability of attention is explained by the presence of dynamic stereotypes of nervous processes developed in the process of practice, due to which this activity can be done easily and naturally. When such dynamic stereotypes are not developed, nervous processes radiate excessively, capture unnecessary areas of the cortex, intercentral connections are established with difficulty, there is no ease of switching from one element of activity to another, etc.

Sustainability of attention increases with the observance of: a) optimal pace of work: if the pace is too slow or too fast, the stability of attention is disturbed; b) optimal amount of work; with an excessive amount of a given work, attention often becomes unstable; in) variety of work the monotonous, monotonous nature of work adversely affects the stability of attention; on the contrary, attention becomes stable when the work includes a variety of activities, when the subject being studied is considered and discussed from various angles.

Thus, stability attention is manifested in the time during which a person can be continuously focused on one object. The longer this time, the more stable attention. But even with steady attention, its direction can change briefly, involuntarily and periodically. This phenomenon is called hesitation attention. The stability of attention on the objects of any activity is the most important condition for high performance in it. Attention will be more stable in the absence of potent extraneous stimuli that distract it: sound, optical, etc. The stability of attention falls when the pace and volume of work deviate from the optimal for a particular person. It will be the most stable in the case when the object of attention is performed not only physical labor but also work that requires creative thinking. The richer the content of an object and the more intellectual actions a person can perform with it, the more stable his attention is on this object.

Distractibility attention is the opposite of stability. Unlike switching, which is done intentionally and arbitrarily, attention is always distracted involuntarily and more often when exposed to strong extraneous stimuli (noise in the room, pain, strong odors, unexpected change of scenery, etc.). Most people, of course, like to work in a calm environment, when nothing distracts them from their work, but a person must accustom himself to work in any conditions, even when something interferes with him.

Considering the properties of attention, it is also necessary to dwell on such important characteristics as intensity and hesitation attention that affect performance .

Attention intensity characterized by a relatively greater expenditure of nervous energy to perform this type of activity , in connection with which the mental processes involved in this activity proceed with greater clarity, clarity and speed.

Attention in the process of performing a particular activity can manifest itself with different strengths. In any work, a person has moments of very intense, intense attention and moments of weakened attention. So, in a state of great fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention, cannot concentrate on the activity being performed, since his nervous system is very tired from the previous work, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cortex and the appearance of drowsiness as a protective inhibition.

The intensity of attention is expressed in a great focus on this type of work and allows you to achieve a better quality of the actions performed. On the contrary, a decrease in the intensity of attention is accompanied by a deterioration in the quality and a decrease in the amount of work.

Attention fluctuation expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it refers.

Fluctuations in attention should be distinguished from an increase or decrease in the intensity of attention, when in certain periods of time it is either more or less intense. Fluctuations in attention are observed even with the most concentrated and steady attention. They are expressed in the fact that, with all its stability and focus on a given activity, attention at some specific moments passes from one object to another in order to return to the first one after a certain period of time.

The periodicity of attention fluctuations can be well shown in experiments with dual images (Figure 3.26).

This drawing depicts two figures at the same time: a truncated pyramid, facing the viewer with its top, and a long corridor with an exit at the end. If we look at this picture with intense attention, we will consistently, at certain intervals, see either a truncated pyramid or a long corridor. This change of objects will occur without fail at certain, approximately equal intervals of time. This phenomenon is the fluctuation of attention.

At any given moment, many mental processes take place in the mind of a person, differing from each other in the degree of their clarity. In addition to distinct images of objects to which our attention is drawn, it contains vague, sometimes the most obscure ideas or experiences associated with stimuli that are not currently paid attention to. For example, when a student listens attentively to a lecture, he clearly and distinctly perceives the speech of the lecturer. In addition, at any given moment, another environment in which the lecture is taking place will also be reflected in the human mind: the appearance of the audience, the faces of the teacher and other students listening and recording the lecture, sun glare on the floor, etc. All these additional perceptions, of course, they are not as clear as the perceptions of the lecturer's words, but nevertheless they are present in the mind while listening to the lecture. One can note the presence in the mind of even less clear representations associated, for example, with the events that preceded the lecture. Even with the most intense attention, this content of consciousness and the ratio of its individual elements will constantly change: the words of the lecturer, on which attention has just been focused, will at some point be perceived vaguely and unclearly, and the perception of the environment or ideas about the things to come after the lecture emerge clearly in consciousness.

The fluctuation of attention is explained by the fatigue of the nerve centers in the process of activity performed with intense attention. The activity of certain nerve centers cannot continue without interruption at a high intensity. During hard work, the corresponding nerve cells are quickly depleted and need to be restored. Protective inhibition sets in, as a result of which the excitatory process in these cells that have just worked hard weakens, while excitation in those centers that were previously inhibited increases, and attention is diverted to extraneous stimuli associated with these centers. But since during work there is a set to maintain attention for a long time on this activity, and not on another, we overcome these distractions as soon as the main centers associated with the work being performed restore their energy supply.

attention span characterized by the number of objects or their elements that can be simultaneously perceived with the same degree of clarity and distinctness at one moment.

In any practical activity, a person's attention is rarely drawn to any one element. Even when it is directed at one but complex object, there are a number of elements in this object. With a single perception of such an object, one person can see more, and the other less elements.

The more objects or their elements are perceived at one moment, the greater the amount of attention; the fewer such objects a person grasps in one act of perception, the smaller the amount of attention and the less effective the activity will be.

In this case, the “moment” is understood as such a short period of time during which a person can perceive the objects presented to him only once, without having time to shift his gaze from one object to another. The duration of such a period of time is approximately 0.07 seconds.

With the help of a special device - a tachistoscope - you can present to the subject for 0.07 seconds. a table with twelve different figures drawn on it, letters, words, objects, etc. During this short period of time, the subject will have time to see clearly only some of them. The number of objects correctly perceived under these conditions (instantaneous perception) characterizes the amount of attention.

There are two types of attention span - with simultaneous and sequential presentation of stimuli. In the first case, this is the maximum number of objects that can be consciously perceived in a moment of time (more often in 0.1 s) when they are presented simultaneously, and in the second case, when they are sequentially presented for 1–2 s.

Nevertheless, it is believed that the numerical characteristic of the average attention span is 5±2 units of information in children and 7±2 in adults.

The scope of attention can be expanded by carefully studying the objects and the situation in which they have to be perceived. When the activity takes place in a familiar environment, the amount of attention increases and the person notices more elements than when he has to act in an unclear or poorly understood situation. The amount of attention of an experienced person who knows this business will be greater than the amount of attention of an inexperienced person who does not know this business.

An increase in the volume of attention can be achieved in the process of its upbringing by comprehending this activity and accumulating knowledge related to it. In this case, training in this type of activity is of great importance, during which the process of perception is improved and a person learns to perceive individual elements of complex objects and situations not in isolation, but grouping them according to significant connections.

Thus, the greater the amount of attention, the more sensory information the human brain receives per unit of time, which means that it has a richer sensory base for its logical processing.

Distribution of attention It is the ability of an individual to perform two or more activities at the same time. This does not mean that these activities are literally carried out in parallel. This impression is created due to the ability of a person to quickly switch from one type of activity to another, having time to return "to an interrupted action" before forgetting occurs.

The distribution of attention depends on the psychological and physiological state of the person. With fatigue (in the process of performing complex activities that require increased concentration of attention), the area of \u200b\u200bits distribution narrows significantly.

Hence, distributed called attention directed simultaneously to several objects or activities.

For example, we can talk about distributed attention when a student listens and simultaneously records a lecture, when a teacher during a lecture follows not just one, but all the students in his field of vision and notices whether all of them have time to write down the material. Distribution attention is also manifested when the driver drives the car and at the same time carefully monitors all the obstacles in his path: the road, the roadside, other cars, etc. In all these cases, the successful performance of the activity depends on the ability of a person to direct his attention simultaneously to several heterogeneous objects or actions.

With distributed attention, each of the activities covered by it proceeds with a relatively lower intensity of attention than when it is focused on only one of any object or action. However, in general, distributed attention requires a person to significantly great effort and expenditure of nervous energy than concentrated.

Divided attention is a necessary condition for the successful performance of many complex activities, which by their very structure require the simultaneous participation of heterogeneous functions or operations.

Switching attention- this is the ability to quickly turn off one type of activity and join in new types of activity that correspond to changed conditions. Such a process can be carried out as involuntary , so on arbitrary basis.

Involuntary shifting of attention may indicate its instability. However, this is not always a negative quality, since it contributes to the temporary rest of the body and the analyzer, the preservation and restoration of the nervous system and the performance of the body as a whole. its elements to others.

Switching attention depends on the mobility of the nervous system, and, therefore, it is higher in younger people. In a state of neuropsychic stress, this indicator decreases due to increased stability and concentration.

The ability to switch attention largely depends on temperament. A sanguine person, for example, easily and quickly switches attention from one object to another, a phlegmatic person - without difficulty, but slowly, a choleric person switches attention with difficulty, but if he transfers it, then quickly. The melancholic has a need for relatively frequent switching of attention due to increased fatigue from monotonous mental activity. Easily switches attention from a less interesting object to a more interesting one, from a less significant to a more significant one, from a difficult task to an easier one, from the known to the unknown. In the opposite direction, attention is switched with difficulty and more slowly, but it also depends on the volitional characteristics of a person, his training in performing this action.

types of attention.

depending from personality activity allocate : involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary (post-voluntary) attention.

Involuntary (unintentional) attention arises without a person's intention to see or hear something, without a pre-set goal, without effort of will.

Involuntary attention is caused by external causes - various features objects acting on a person at the moment. The features by which external objects can attract our attention are as follows.

The intensity of the stimulus. An object stronger than another, simultaneously acting on the organism, an object (a stronger sound, a brighter light, a sharper smell, etc.) is more likely to attract attention. However, objects retain this property only as long as a person is not accustomed to a given degree of intensity. Even very strong irritants, if they have become habitual, cease to attract attention.

Novelty, unusual objects. Sometimes even objects that are not distinguished by their intensity attract attention to themselves, if only they are new to us; for example, some changes in the familiar environment, the appearance of a new person in the audience or company, etc.

Abrupt change, as well as dynamism objects. This is often observed during complex and long-term actions, for example, when watching a sports competition, perceiving a movie, etc. In these cases, a violation of the relatively calm flow of stimuli due to a sudden increase or weakening of individual stimuli, the introduction of a pause or a change in the rhythm and tempo of movements involuntarily attracts attention.

Knowing the characteristics of stimuli, thanks to which they are able to attract attention to themselves, one can easily cause unintentional attention in certain individuals. For example, a loud voice, a clear command will draw students' attention to the teacher's requirements, and a bright colorful poster will make them pay attention to its content.

Unintentional attention is characterized by the following main features:

o In unintentional attention, the person is not pre-prepared for a given perception or action.

o Unintentional attention occurs suddenly, immediately after the impact of irritation and in its intensity is determined by the characteristics of the irritation that caused it.

o Unintentional attention is transient: it lasts as long as the appropriate stimuli act, and if the necessary measures are not taken to consolidate it in the form of intentional, it stops.

Arbitrary (deliberate) attention active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, maintaining the level of which is associated with certain volitional efforts necessary to combat stronger influences. The irritant in this situation is a thought or an order pronounced to oneself and causing a corresponding excitation in the cerebral cortex. Voluntary attention depends on the state of the nervous system (decreases in an upset, overly excited state) and is determined by motivational factors: the strength of the need, attitude to the object of knowledge and attitude (unconscious readiness to perceive objects and phenomena of reality in a certain way). This type of attention is necessary for the assimilation of skills; working capacity depends on it.

Based on this, voluntary attention is distinguished following characteristics:

o Purposefulness. Arbitrary attention is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity. In deliberate attention, not all objects attract attention, but only those that stand in connection with the task the person is performing at the moment; from many objects, he chooses those that are needed in this type of activity.

o Organization. With voluntary attention, a person prepares in advance to be attentive to one or another object, consciously directs his attention to this object, and shows the ability to organize the mental processes necessary for this activity.

o Increased stability. Deliberate attention allows you to organize work for a more or less long time, it is associated with the planning of this work.

These features of voluntary attention make it an important factor the success of any activity.

So, voluntary attention requires significant energy consumption, and therefore, with a narrow focus on one, especially a low-content object, it tires a person faster than involuntary attention. Without voluntary attention, a person cannot act systematically and achieve the goals that he outlines.

Characteristic post-voluntary attention is already contained in its very name: it comes after the arbitrary, but qualitatively differs from it. When the first positive results appear when solving a problem, interest arises, and activity is automated. Its implementation no longer requires special volitional efforts and is limited only by fatigue, although the goal of the work remains. This type of attention is of great importance in educational and work activities.

Post-voluntary attention is purposeful, but does not require special volitional efforts. It has the stability of voluntary attention and energy economy of involuntary attention. Post-voluntary attention is that involuntary attention that is “born” from previously organized voluntary attention. So, sometimes it is difficult to focus attention when reading a book, an article, but its content captured, carried away the reader, and he did not notice how voluntary attention turned into post-voluntary. This is the most productive type of attention, which is associated with the most effective intellectual and physical activity. If a person has post-voluntary attention, it is difficult for him to switch to another object.

According to the direction distinguish between externally directed and internal attention. outward directed (perceptual) attention is directed to the surrounding objects and phenomena, and internal - to their own thoughts and experiences.

Origin distinguish: natural and socially conditioned attention. natural attention - this is the innate ability of a person to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty.

socially conditioned Attention develops during the life of the subject (in vivo) as a result of training and education. It is associated with a selective conscious response to objects, with volitional regulation of behavior .

According to the mechanism of regulation distinguish between direct and indirect attention.

immediate attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

mediated attention controlled by special means, such as gestures.

By its orientation to the object There are the following types of attention:

o sensory (aimed at perception)

o intellectual (aimed at thinking, memory work),

o motor (directed to the movement).

According to intensity dynamics distinguish between static and dynamic attention.

static Such attention is called, the high intensity of which easily arises at the very beginning of work and is maintained throughout the entire time of its execution. Such attention does not require special “acceleration”, gradual accumulation; it is characterized by the maximum degree of intensity from the very beginning of work. Distinguished by static attention, the student is immediately included in academic work, as soon as the lesson has begun, and maintains this intensity of attention more or less at the same level throughout the work. Static attention is also characterized by easy switching to new types of work when moving, for example, from one material to another.

dynamic attention has opposite qualities; at the beginning of work it is not intense; a person needs a certain effort to force himself to be attentive to this type of action; he is slowly drawn into work; the first minutes pass with him in constant distractions, and only gradually and with difficulty does he concentrate on work.

Dynamic attention is also characterized by difficulty switching from one type of work to another. This is explained, on the one hand, by the fact that with dynamic attention the degree of concentration achieved in relation to this work is maintained for a long time, even when the time has come to move on to a new type of activity. On the other hand, this difficulty of switching is due to the fact that the transition to a new type of work again requires build-up, acceleration, gradual entry into this work.

Dynamic attention is usually associated with the inability to plan work and properly distribute one’s forces: a person does not see the long-term prospects for his work, does not clearly imagine those operations, their volume and sequence that he must perform, does not know how to properly distribute his efforts.

So, attention is the most general indicator of the activity of any of the cognitive mental processes and the intellectual activity of a person as a whole. A temporary or prolonged decrease in the stability of attention, a weakening of its concentration (ordinary absent-mindedness) and its other properties, first of all, indicate an intellectual or physical fatigue of a person or a deterioration in his health.

The reasons for the decrease in various indicators of attention can be the following:

o a weak type of nervous system and the increased fatigue associated with it (inherent in people with a melancholic temperament),

o exhaustion as a result of systematic physical and intellectual overload or systematic lack of sleep,

o various diseases,

o asthenic conditions,

o conflict situations,

o disordered daily routine,

o distracting (noise) stimuli when doing work,

o lack of friendly attitude of family members to each other,

o addiction to alcoholic beverages, etc.

Violation of attention is also observed in organic lesions of the brain, primarily its frontal lobes.

Memory

Memory is a reflection of a person's past experience by remembering, preserving and reproducing it. The importance of memory in human life was best described by the great psychologist S.L. Rubinstein. He wrote: “Without memory we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it flows, would irrevocably disappear into the past. There would be no knowledge based on the past, no skills. There would be no psychic life." Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future, is the most important mental process underlying the development, learning, socialization of the individual, ensuring its unity and integrity.

There are two types of memory: genetic (hereditary) and mechanical (individual, acquired). genetic memory- this is a memory that is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance, stores information that determines the anatomical and physiological structure of the body and innate forms of behavior (instincts). mechanical memory- this is a mechanical ability to learn, to acquire some kind of experience, it is a reflection of past experience gained from the moment a person was born by remembering, storing and reproducing at the right time. This memory accumulates, but is not preserved, but disappears with the body itself. The concept of "mechanical memory" means a memory that is based on repetition, without comprehending the actions performed and the material to be remembered.

Many people complain about bad memory. However, the amount of human memory has no limits. At present, it is believed that a person remembers all the information received, but retains only part of it in consciousness.

The diagram below summarizes what is included in the concept of "memory" (Fig. 3.27).

Rice. 3.27. Types and processes of memory

memory properties.

The most important properties of memory are: duration, speed (memorization and reproduction), accuracy, readiness, volume(Fig. 3.28). These characteristics determine how productive a person's memory is.

Rice. 3.28. Basic properties of memory

Volume- the ability to simultaneously store a certain amount of information. Average short-term memory - 7 + 2 different elements (units) of information.

Memorization speed- differs from person to person. The speed of memorization can be increased with the help of special memory training.

Accuracy- is manifested in an adequate reproduction of the facts and events that a person has encountered, as well as in an adequate reproduction of the content of information.

Duration– is determined by the time of storing information. Also a very individual quality: some people can remember the faces and names of school friends many years later, some forget them after only a few months. Memory duration is selective.

Ready for playback- the ability to quickly retrieve information from memory. It is thanks to this ability that we can effectively use the experience gained earlier.

There are different classifications of types of human memory:

1. on the participation of the will in the process of memorization;

2. according to the mental activity that prevails in the activity;

3. according to the duration of information storage;

By the nature of the participation of the will memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

involuntary memory provides memorization and reproduction automatically, without any volitional effort.

Arbitrary memory implies cases when the goal is to remember, and volitional efforts are used for remembering.

It has been proven that material that is interesting to a person, which is of great importance to him, is involuntarily remembered.

By the nature of mental activity, with the help of which a person remembers information, memory is divided into motor, emotional (affective), figurative and verbal-logical.

In turn, figurative memory is divided according to the type of analyzers that are involved in memorizing impressions by a person. Figurative memory can be visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory.

motor memory- memorization, preservation and reproduction of simple and complex movements. This memory is actively involved in the development of motor (labor, sports) skills and abilities. All manual movements of a person are associated with this type of memory.
This memory manifests itself in a person first of all and is essential for the normal development of the child.

emotional memory- memory for emotions and feelings. Especially this kind of memory is manifested in human relationships. As a rule, what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a long time. As already mentioned, pleasant events are remembered better than unpleasant ones. This type memory plays an important role in a person's motivation, and begins to manifest itself from about 6 months.

figurative memory associated with the memorization and reproduction of sensory images of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships between them. This memory begins to manifest itself at the age of two years and reaches its highest point by adolescence. Images can be different: a person remembers both images of different objects, and general idea about them with some abstract content. Different analyzers help memorize images. Different people have more active different analyzers.

Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. People with a developed visual memory usually have a well-developed imagination and are able to "see" information even when it no longer affects the senses. It is very important for people of certain professions: artists, engineers, composers.

auditory memory – this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds: speech, music. Such memory is especially necessary when studying foreign languages, musicians.

Tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory- memory for the corresponding images.

eidetic memory Memory is characterized by the appearance of vivid and detailed visual images.

Verbal logical memory memory for words, thoughts and logical relationships. In this case, a person tries to understand the information being assimilated, clarify the terminology, establish all semantic connections, and only after that remember the material. It is easier for people with a developed verbal-logical memory to memorize verbal, abstract material, concepts, formulas. Logical memory when it is trained gives very good results and is much more effective than just mechanical memorization. It appears in a child as early as 3-4 years old, when the very foundations of logic begin to develop. Develops with teaching the child the basics of science.

By the duration of information storage allocate sensory, short-term, short-term and long-term memory.

Sensory memory. This memory retains material that has just been received by the senses without any processing of information. The duration of this memory is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Often in this case, a person remembers information without conscious effort, even against his will. This memory is based on the inertia of sensations. This memory manifests itself in children as early as preschool age, but over the years, its importance for a person increases.

Short term memory. Provides storage of information for a short period of time: on average, about 20 s. This type of memory can function with a single or very brief perception. This memory also works without a conscious effort to remember, but with an attitude towards future reproduction. The most essential elements of the perceived image are stored in memory. Short-term memory "turns on" when the so-called actual consciousness of a person (that is, what is realized by a person at a given moment) operates.

Information is entered into short-term memory by paying attention to the memorized object. For example, a person who has just looked at a watch may not answer the question of which numerals, Roman or Arabic, are depicted on the dial. He purposefully ignored it, and thus the information did not get into short-term memory.

The amount of short-term memory is very individual. There are various methods for measuring it. In this regard, it is necessary to say about such a feature of short-term memory as substitution property . When an individual memory capacity becomes full, new information partially replaces what is stored there, and old information often disappears forever. good example there may be difficulties in remembering the abundance of surnames and names of people with whom we have just met. A person is able to retain no more names in short-term memory than his memory capacity allows.

By making a conscious effort, you can keep material in short-term memory longer and ensure its transfer to working memory. This underlies memorization through repetition. At the same time, it is eliminated necessary information and what remains is potentially useful. Short-term memory organizes human thinking, since thinking “draws” information and facts from short-term and operative memory.

Operational memory - a memory that stores information for a certain, predetermined period. The storage time of information ranges from a few seconds to several hours. For example, you are reading a long sentence and you need to remember its beginning while you read it to the end; then you can connect the idea at the beginning of the sentence with the one at the end. In this case, you are using RAM. After solving the task, the information may disappear from the RAM. A good example would be information that a student is trying to remember during an exam: the time frame and task are clearly set. After passing the exam, there is again an inability to reproduce a significant part of the information on this issue. This type of memory is, as it were, transitional, from short-term to long-term, as it includes elements of both.

long-term memory A memory capable of storing information for an unlimited time.

This memory does not begin to function immediately after the material has been memorized, but after some time. A person must switch from one process to another: from memorization to reproduction. These two processes are incompatible and their mechanisms are completely different.

Interestingly, the more often information is reproduced, the more firmly it is fixed in memory. In other words, a person can recall information at any necessary moment with the help of an effort of will. It is important to note that mental ability is not always an indicator of the quality of memory. For example, weak-minded people sometimes have a phenomenal long-term memory.

Modern researchers distinguish the following types of memory.