home Credit The main external sign of the existence of the world market. Cheat sheet on "international trade"

The main external sign of the existence of the world market. Cheat sheet on "international trade"

The world economy is a set of national economies of the countries of the world that are in close interaction and interdependence through international economic relations.

Subjects of the world economy: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; individuals.

Stages of formation of the world economy:

15th-18th century - the division of labor, the development of production, as a result of which there was a need to develop new territories, enter new markets;
Late 18th-early 19th century - the industrial revolution, which led to mass large-scale production;
Late 19th century - 50-60s. 20th century:

Late 19th century-20s 20th century (monopolistic associations are being created, the struggle for the territory of trade is intensifying);

30-50s of the 20th century (“the world economic crisis”, after which there was a scientific and technological revolution and new industries appeared);

60-80s 20th century (the collapse of the colonial system, the formation of a large number of independent states in Africa, Asia, Latin America; the European Union is formed);

4. late 20th century – up to now (migration work force, a single global information space, the integrity of the financial system).

Correlation of concepts: world.market, international trade, world.trade

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade all countries of the world.

World economy: concept, subjects, objects, structure

The world economy is a multi-level, global economic system that unites the national economies of the countries of the world on the basis of the international division of labor through the system of international economic relations.

Generally world economy can be defined as a set of national economies and non-state structures united international relations. The world economy arose thanks to the international division of labor, which entailed both the division of production (that is, international specialization) and its unification - cooperation.

Object of the world economy: world (world) economy.

Subjects of the world economy: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; big businessmen.

The subjects of the world economy can be divided into three levels depending on the functions and tasks they perform.
1. The level of business entities, i.e. various firms and organizations - micro level.
2. State level (macro level), i.e. the level of action of various government agencies and organizations. At this level, by adopting various regulations, an environment is formed in which business entities operate, i.e. the rules for conducting foreign economic activity, the circle of possible participants, the tax policy in this area are determined; the foreign economic policy of the state is formed.
3. Interstate level - i.e. the level of action of various interstate organizations that determine the basic rules of relations on issues of foreign economic relations, developed in agreement with the member states of these organizations.

The structure of the world economy consists of the following major substructures: sectoral, reproductive, territorial and socio-economic.

Industry structure is the ratio between different industries in an economy.

The reproductive structure is the ratio between various types use of productive GDP.

Territorial structure - the ratio of the economy various countries and territories.

Socio-economic structure is the relationship between different socio-economic structures.

International economic relations

International economic relations are, in a broad sense, a system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries, represented by various economic entities, as well as international economic organizations and financial centers.

The development of international economic relations depends on a number of factors:

a) natural factors (natural-climatic, demographic);

b) acquired factors (production, scientific and technical, political, social, national-ethnic, religious).

The main forms of international economic relations:

International trade in goods;

International trade in services;

International specialization and cooperation of production;

International scientific and technical cooperation and exchange of scientific and technical results;

International movement of capital, international monetary and credit and financial relations;

International labor movement;

International information exchange;

Activities of international economic organizations and cooperation in solving global problems.

Sometimes the forms of international economic relations also include international economic integration (the highest level of the international division of labor, resulting from the deepening of international specialization and the unification of the national economies of a number of countries).

The objects of international economic relations are primarily goods and services circulating in international trade.

IEO subjects: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; individuals.

MT methods: commodity exchanges, international auctions, international trades.

International Commodity Exchanges is a large permanent wholesale market where certain rules purchase and sale transactions are made for mass, qualitatively homogeneous and interchangeable goods.

Members of commodity exchanges are, as a rule, individuals, representing industrial or trading companies that produce or trade goods traded on the exchange. Brokers are hired to mediate transactions. They act on behalf and at the expense of third parties, receiving commissions for their services. The invited guests are the last group of exchange trade participants. They can make deals with the help of exchange members or brokers.

The goods that are traditionally the subject of exchange turnover include:

Vegetable products (grain, sugar, coffee, cocoa, tea, spices);

Animal products (live cattle, meat, eggs, lard);

Industrial raw materials and products of its processing;

Metals, as well as products and semi-finished products from them.

The exchange commodity must be homogeneous, it must be suitable for standardization, it must not spoil quickly, the demand and supply for the exchange commodity must be massive.

International auctions are a specially organized permanent market where purchase and sale transactions are carried out through targeted competition between buyers.

Goods sold at auctions are mass and single, but their common feature is the heterogeneity of batches or individual copies, i.e. they cannot be bought without a preliminary inspection of the unit of goods (lot) being sold.

At auctions, goods accepted from sellers are sorted according to their quality into batches (lots), a sample is taken from each batch, and a number is assigned to the lot. A catalog is then produced and sent to potential buyers who arrive at the auction early to inspect the item. Bidding at auctions is carried out either with an increase in price or with a decrease (“Dutch auction”). Auction bidding with a price increase can be conducted "by voice" or using gestures. In the first case, the auctioneer announces the lot number and names the initial price, asking: "Who is more?". If the next price increase is not offered, then after asking three times: “Who is more?” - the lot is considered sold to the one who named the previous price. In a price reduction auction, the auctioneer lowers the price by predetermined discounts. The lot is purchased by the buyer who first says "yes".

Bidding is a method of concluding contracts of sale or a contract, in which the buyer (customer) announces a competition on the day of sellers (contractors) for goods with predetermined technical and economic characteristics and, after comparing the received offers, signs a contract of sale or a contract with that seller ( contractor), which offer more favorable conditions for the buyer (customer).

Various equipment, trucks, railway rolling stock, ships and others are purchased through tenders. vehicles, communications equipment, etc.

Bidding can be open and closed (tender).

Bidding stages:

Preparation (initiator - Government, state or private organization; preparation and organization is carried out by the Tender Committee);
Preparation and submission of proposals by bidders;
Evaluation of proposals of participants and award of contracts.

World market: concept, elements, conjuncture, factors, features.

The world market is a synthetic concept that unites the markets of all countries of the world into a single whole. At the same time, the world market combines international trade in goods and services, international movement of capital, international movement of labor and international information exchange.

The main features of the global market:

It is based on the development of a market economy;
The world market is manifested in the interstate movement of goods and services, the main factors of production under the influence of the ratio of supply and demand;
The world market plays a sanitizing role; eliminates all unnecessary.

Acting as a sphere of interstate exchange of goods, the world market has a reverse effect on production, showing it what, how much and for whom it is necessary to produce. In this sense, the world market turns out to be primary in relation to the producer and is the central category of the theory of international economics.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries.

World market- the sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries based on the international division of labor and other factors of production.

The world market covers all the main areas of the international division of labor. The scale of development of the world market reflects the degree of development of the internationalization process social production. The world market is derived from the domestic markets of countries. At the same time, it has an active inverse effect on the macroeconomic balance of isolated economic systems. Segments of the world market are determined by both traditional factors of production - land, labor and capital, and relatively new ones - information technology and entrepreneurship, the importance of which is growing under the influence of the modern scientific and technological revolution. The markets for goods and services, capital and labor force, formed at the supranational level, are the result of the interaction of world demand, world prices and world supply, are affected by cyclical fluctuations, operate in conditions of monopoly and competition.

The global market is characterized by the following main features:

It manifests itself in the interstate movement of goods that are under the influence of not only internal, but also external demand and supply;

Optimizes the use of production factors, prompting the manufacturer in which industries and regions they can be applied most effectively;

It performs a sanitizing role, rejecting goods and often their producers from international exchange, which are not able to provide international standard quality at competitive prices.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods and services that form the export and import of each country. Export is the sale and export of goods abroad, import is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference between the cost estimates of exports and imports forms the trade balance, and the sum of these estimates is the foreign trade turnover.

Product-service. The product-service includes the following components:

I. Manufacturing Services:

know-how,

Licenses;

Transport services;

Engineering services, etc.

II. Consumer services:

Socio-cultural services (education, healthcare, sports, etc.).

The share of economically developed countries in the world market of services is about 80%.

Among the reasons stimulating the rapid growth of the world market for services are the following:

A mature economy and a high standard of living increase the demand for services;

The development of all types of transport stimulates the international mobility of both entrepreneurs and the population;

New forms of communication, including satellites, sometimes make it possible to replace the personal contacts of sellers and buyers;

The accelerated process of expanding and deepening the international division of labor, which leads to the formation of new types of activities, primarily in the non-productive sphere.

Dynamics of development of international trade

Since the second half of the 20th century, when international exchange, according to M. Pebro's definition, acquires an "explosive character", world trade has been developing at a high pace. In the period 1950-1998. world exports grew 16 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as a "golden age" in the development of international trade. In the 1970s, world exports fell to 5%, falling further in the 1980s. In the late 80s, he showed a noticeable revival. Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has manifested itself. In the 1990s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than those of the United States. By the end of the 80s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. Export of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. USD. The share of the group of goods is 80% of services 20% of the total volume of trade in the world.

At the present stage, international trade plays an important role in economic development countries, regions, the entire world community:

foreign trade has become a powerful factor in economic growth;

the dependence of countries on international trade has increased significantly.

The main factors affecting the growth of international trade:

development of the international division of labor and internationalization of production;

activities of transnational corporations TNCs;

Analysis of the global consulting market

Over the past 20 years, there has been a very large growth in consulting services. This is due to the globalization of the world economy. In 2000-2001, in connection with the stock market crises, consulting experienced better times, slowly recovering in 2003-2004, by 2007 reached a fairly high level, and despite the global financial crisis, in 2009, the international consulting market is reaching fairly high rates, which is primarily due to a slight increase in the client base due to an increase in demand for business optimization services, IT projects, and increasing the efficiency of using various resources (including labor) , training, etc. The largest markets for consulting services today are the US and the EU, the markets of Asian countries show good dynamics, but their share in the world market is still small.

AT last years there have been significant changes in the structure of world trade. In particular, the share of communication services and information technologies At the same time, the share of trade in commodities and agricultural products is declining.

Certain changes are also taking place in the geographical distribution of world trade. The trade of developing countries is gradually growing, but the volume of goods flows from the newly industrialized countries is growing at an especially rapid pace.

RUSSIA IN THE WORLD MARKET OF SERVICES

In transition Russian economy on a market basis and its integration into world economy one should take into account the active role of the service sector, as well as all aspects of its development abroad (technical, structural, organizational, managerial, quantitative and qualitative). Our primary task is to accelerate the development of the service sector.

Structure and main quality parameters Russian market services differ significantly from Western ones, primarily in the predominance of traditional industries that provide transportation and marketing of manufactured products. At the moment, there are gaps in Russia regarding the statistical treatment of services in both domestic production and foreign trade (especially with regard to the geographical structure of export and import flows of service industries). There are problems with the classification of services. Thus, a brake on the development of the practical activities of service market operators is the discrepancy in classifying certain types of services as export-import operations. There is a need and work is already underway to compile an all-Russian classifier of species economic activity for goods and services adapted to the international classification system.

The economic development of the service sectors was accompanied by the creation of an appropriate legislative framework. The need for further development of a regulatory regime for the services sector, which will ensure the optimal combination of state control measures and competitive conditions for the activities of domestic and foreign service providers, is becoming increasingly clear for Russia in the light of the task of joining the WTO. The most important and predominant item of the trade balance Russian Federation in the service sector in recent years is tourism

World market- the sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries, based on the international division of labor and other factors of production. World market- a set of markets of individual countries interconnected by commodity exchange, the regulation of which takes place on the basis of regulatory materials regulated by the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). The global market is characterized by the following main features:
. it is a category of commodity production that has gone beyond the national framework in search of the sale of its products;
. it manifests itself in the interstate movement of goods that are under the influence of not only internal, but also external demand and supply;
. it optimizes the use of factors of production, prompting the manufacturer in which industries and regions they can be applied most effectively;
. it performs a sanitary role by culling goods and often their producers from international exchange, which are not able to provide an international quality standard at competitive prices.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is movement of goods and services between countries. The world economy is made up of national-state economies that are in constant and mutual economic connection with each other. The world economy should be considered as an objective result of economic growth, the result of the immanent striving of social production for the most positive economic effect, as a result of the interaction of factors driving the production of material goods. Consequently, the world economy is a global economic organism in which the interconnection and interdependence of all countries and peoples of the planet have developed and are growing. It is characterized by the increasing internationalization of productive forces, the creation of a diverse system of international economic relations, and the formation of international mechanisms that regulate economic exchange between countries. The growing and strengthening integrity is objectively expressed in the world economy. modern world. The strategic direction of the foreign economic policy of the Russian Federation is the further integration of Russia into the world economic community in order to maximize the use of foreign economic relations for the implementation of a long-term structural restructuring of the Russian economy. However, in modern system Russia participates in world economic relations so far mainly due to the expansion of trade in goods, mainly raw materials and materials. Russia is poorly involved in international production cooperation, trade in services, international capital migration in the form of direct investment.
The Russian economy turned out to be dependent on the export of a narrow range of goods, primarily the fuel and raw material group, as well as on the import of many consumer goods. The degree of its openness at a certain stage ceased to correspond to the internal capabilities of the country, the scale and depth of the problems facing it. In this regard, in order to solve the problems of stabilizing the growth of the national economy, taking into account the trends in the development of the world economy and trade, as well as ensuring equal integration of Russia into the world economy, it is necessary to ensure the implementation of the following main goals:
- increasing the competitiveness of the Russian economy;
- maintaining Russia's position in the world commodity markets(raw materials, materials, complete equipment, weapons and military equipment), as well as further expansion of exports finished products and services; ensuring equal conditions for the access of Russian goods and services to world markets with adequate protection of the domestic market from unfair foreign competition in accordance with the established practice of international economic relations; pursuing a customs tariff policy that contributes to the creation of favorable conditions for expanding national production and increasing its competitiveness, while not worsening the conditions for competition in the domestic market;
- reducing capital flight through foreign trade channels by creating more favorable economic conditions in Russia, as well as tightening control over the implementation of export-import operations, including currency and customs control.

International financial (economic) organizations(MFIs) are created by combining financial resources participating countries to solve certain problems in the development of the world economy. These tasks can be:
. operations in the international currency and stock market with the aim of stabilizing and regulating the world economy, maintaining and stimulating international trade;
. interstate loans - loans for implementation government projects and financing the budget deficit;
. investment activity - lending in the field of international projects (projects affecting the interests of several countries participating in the project both directly and through resident commercial organizations);
. charity(financing of international assistance programs) and financing of fundamental scientific research. As examples of international financial institutions one can name the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Financial Corporation. The IMF and the World Bank are legally separate organizations with different purposes, although they originated at the same time. the main task World Bank - Promoting sustainable economic growth that reduces poverty in developing countries.
Objectives of the International Monetary Fund:
Intergovernmental monetary and credit organization for the promotion of international monetary cooperation on the basis of consultations of its members and the provision of loans to them.
1. To promote the development of international cooperation in the monetary and financial sphere within the framework of a permanent establishment.
2. To promote the process of expansion and balanced growth of international trade, as well as the development of the productive resources of all Member States, considering these actions as the priorities of economic policy.
3. Promote currency stability, maintain an orderly exchange regime among member states, and avoid using currency devaluations to gain competitive advantage.
4. To assist in the creation of a multilateral system of settlements for current transactions between member states, as well as in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions that impede the growth of world trade.
5. By temporarily providing the general resources of the Fund to Member States, subject to adequate guarantees, to create a state of confidence in them, thereby enabling them to correct imbalances in their balance of payments without resorting to measures that could harm national or international welfare.
6. In accordance with the above - to reduce the duration of imbalances in the external balance of payments of the Member States, as well as to reduce the scale of these violations.

IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development). The Bank, as a specialized agency of the United Nations, is part of the United Nations system. Goals:
1) promoting the reconstruction and development of the territories of the Member States by encouraging investment for production purposes;
2) encouragement of private foreign investment and, in addition to private investment, if it is difficult to secure, the provision of financial resources for production purposes;
3) stimulation of long-term balanced growth and assistance in maintaining the equilibrium of the balance of payments by encouraging international investment to develop the productive resources of the Bank's member states.
IFC (International Finance Corporation). Goals:
1) Promoting the economic growth of the member countries by encouraging entrepreneurship in the manufacturing sector, i.e. at the micro level, thus complementing the activities of the IBRD;
2) pooling Money used by the Fund to provide loans to Member States in financial difficulty;
3) strengthening the role of the calculation basis for determining by the Fund the amount of loan that can be extended to a contributing member, or the amount that it can receive during periodic distributions of special funds, known as special drawing rights;
4) determining the number of votes granted to each Member State.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries.

international trade - This is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

In relation to one country, the term is usually used foreign trade of the state, regarding the trade of the two countries - interstate, mutual, bilateral trade, and as regards the trade of all countries with each other - international, or world trade.

Often, international trade is understood as trade in both tangible goods ("visible goods") and services ("invisible goods"), which differ from visible goods in some parameters.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

Export - is the sale and export of goods abroad.

Import - is the purchase and importation of goods from abroad.

Foreign trade balance - the difference in value of exports and imports.

Foreign trade turnover - the sum of the cost volumes of exports and imports.

According to internationally accepted standards of international trade statistics, the main feature for recognizing international trade, the sale of goods - export, and the purchase - import is the intersection of goods customs border state and fixing this fact in the relevant customs reporting. For example, if the equipment is sold (in fact, transferred) by the American division of Coca-Cola to the Ukrainian division, then this is considered an export and import of Ukraine, even though the American company Coca-Cola remained the owner of the goods.

Export and import are two key concepts, which characterize the international movement of goods and are used for a comprehensive analysis of international trade and for practical needs. The trade balance and turnover, as their derivatives, have a narrower analytical and practical value.

If we proceed from the premise of the balance of supply and demand, then graphically the concept of export and import can be depicted as shown in Fig. 1.2.3.

Rice. 1.2.3. Graphical representation of export and import:

a)- country I ; b)- world market; in)- country II

Suppose that countries i and II separately from each other produce and use the same product. The demand and supply of goods in country I are D 1 , and S 1 , and in country II - respectively DII and SII. On the horizontal axis of readings, the volume of production of goods QAnd, QII, on the vertical - its internal price PAND, P 2 respectively in countries II. The market equilibrium of supply and demand for a product is reached at the point E 1 in a country where the price of a commodity is P 2 and point E 2. In country II, where the price of a commodity is G 2. Insofar as G 1 < G 2 , a given product is cheaper in country I than in country II, and therefore it is profitable for country I to export it to country II and get some profit from it, and for country II it is profitable to import it from country And thereby save and reduce its purchases in domestic market. Through differences in domestic prices between countries i and II in country i for any price of goods greater than G 1, its excess supply arises. In country II, for any commodity price less than G 2, there is an excess demand for it.

Countries begin to trade. Rivnova price G in the country And means that at the point E 1 the demand for the product is exactly equal to the supply and to the country AND there is no product to export. This defines the point G on the world market supply curve, which shows minimum price, after reaching which there will be no export from the country Yi. For country II, the equilibrium price G, means that at the point E 2, in which demand is equal to supply, the country does not need any imported goods, since it has enough of its own resources. This defines the point G "g on the demand curve in the world market, which shows the maximum price, after which the import of goods by country II will stop.

Since we are considering only two countries, the quantity of goods exported by country I must match the quantity of goods imported by country II, or in other words, the excess domestic supply in country II must equal the excess domestic demand in country II, that is, graphically A X B X \u003d A 0 B 2, A 1 B 1 is the export of country I, and A 2 B 2- import country II. Export volume A 1 B I will show the second point, which defines S w - the supply curve of goods on the world market, and the volume of imports A ABOUT B 2- the second point, which determines Dw - the demand curve for the product in the world market. But since exports are quantitatively equal to imports, in Fig. 1.2.3, b) they coincide on the line R "E, defining a new market equilibrium, which is reached at the point E I for a new level of world price P" w - the equilibrium price of goods in the world market. The world supply and demand for a commodity at this price is determined according to the curves D, and S.

If a situation arises when the price of the world market for some reason rises above the level G "w, thereby expanding the volume of exports by more than AB x, then the limitation of demand by quantitative framework A 0 B 2 bring the price down to G. If the price of the world market why falls below the level G "w, then quantitatively the demand for imports of goods will exceed its quantity for exports A X Bj and the price will return to the world level G".

Based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

the world market is the sphere of the international balance of supply and demand for goods that are exported and imported by countries;
export volumes are determined by the volumes of excess supply of goods, import volumes - by volumes of excess demand for goods;
the fact of the presence of excess supply and excess demand in the international market is established by comparing domestic equal prices for the same goods in different countries;
the price at which international trade is carried out is between the minimum and maximum domestic equilibrium prices that exist in countries before the start of trade;
on the one hand, a change in the world price leads to a change in the quantity of goods that are exported and imported on the world market, on the other hand, a change in the quantity of exported and imported goods leads to a change in the world price.

Consequently, the world market is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries, which are based on the international division of labor and other factors of production. The world market is manifested through international trade, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world and consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports. The simplest model world market, which is called partial equilibrium models, shows the main functional relationships between domestic demand and supply and demand and supply of goods on the world market, determines the quantitative volumes of exports and imports, as well as the equilibrium price on which trade takes place.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries. International trade (international trade) - the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

In relation to one country, the term "foreign trade of the state" is usually used, in relation to the trade of two countries among themselves - "interstate, mutual, bilateral trade", and in relation to the trade of all countries with each other - "international or world trade". Often, international trade is understood as trade not only in goods, but also in services. Services are also goods, but often they do not have a materialized form and differ from goods in a number of parameters, which will be discussed below. International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover. Export - the sale of goods, providing for its export abroad. Import - the purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad. The trade balance is the difference between the value of exports and imports. Trade turnover- the sum of the cost volumes of exports and imports.

According to the internationally accepted standards of international trade statistics, the key element for recognizing international trade, the sale of goods as export, and the purchase as import, is the fact that the goods cross the customs border of the state and record this in the relevant customs reporting. At the same time, whether the product of the owner changes or not - it does not matter. For example, if a computer is sold (but in fact, transferred) by the American division of IBM to its Russian division, it is considered a US export and a Russian import, even though the American company IBM remains the owner of the goods. In the theory of the balance of payments, on the contrary, the change of ownership of the goods is decisive, and the sale of Russian raw materials to a subsidiary of an American enterprise located in Russia will be considered Russian exports, although the raw materials did not cross the border.

Export and import are two key concepts that characterize the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of international trade and for practical purposes. The trade balance and turnover, as their derivatives, have a narrower analytical and practical value and are used less often.

The most common type of transactions such as the sale of goods is the usual trade between counterparties of different countries, i.e. foreign trade, which consists of export and import operations. At the same time, export operations are understood as the sale and export of goods abroad to transfer it to the ownership of a foreign partner. On the contrary, import operations involve the purchase and import of foreign goods for their subsequent sale in the domestic market of their country. Export-import operations can be both direct and indirect, i.e. carried out both by the owners of the goods themselves and by intermediaries. The role of the latter can be brokers, dealers, commission agents, consignees, wholesale customers, industrial agents. Intermediaries take on numerous functions for the sale of goods. For example, they can search for foreign partners, prepare documents and complete a transaction, transport and forwarding operations, credit and financial services and insurance of goods, after-sales service, market research, advertising, customs formalities and other activities.

In addition to export-import operations in the practice of international economic relations, such special forms of foreign trade as bidding, auctions and exchanges are also used to sell goods.

A variety of export-import operations are re-export and re-import operations. Re-export is the export abroad of goods previously imported into a given country that have not undergone any processing in it. Re-export operations are possible in a variety of situations. First, re-export arises as a natural continuation of the trading operation. The seller imports the goods into the country for sale on the exchange or auction, but it can be sold to the buyer from a third country and exported. Secondly, re-export may appear due to a break in the normal course of the sale of goods. If the seller sent the goods to the buyer, but the latter, for some reason, cannot pay for it, then he seeks to resell the goods to another buyer in this country or in a third country. The departure of goods to a third country is re-export. This is a forced re-export. Thirdly, it is also possible to perform a re-export operation without prior importation of goods from abroad, since they can be sent to a new buyer, bypassing the re-export country. trading firms many large countries often resort to resale operations, using the difference in prices for the same product to make a profit. In addition to firms engaged in net re-exports, the country also benefits from the transportation of re-exported goods carried out with the help of its vehicles, from insurance, credit and other intermediary operations. And, finally, fourthly, re-export operations also arise during the construction of large facilities with the help of foreign firms. Practice shows that a foreign supplier often purchases certain types materials and equipment in third countries and sends them to the construction site without being brought into the country of re-export. Re-export operations without importation into the country of re-export, in fact, are not exports of this country, but they are taken into account by customs statistics and therefore belong to the class of re-export operations.

Re-exported goods are generally not processed. However, minor work can be done that does not change the name of the product: changing packaging, applying special markings, supplying keys cans etc. But if the cost of additional processing of the goods exceeded half of its export price, then according to trade practice the product changes its name and is no longer considered re-export, and operations for its sale become export. For example, many Russian non-ferrous metallurgical corporations currently work on tolling, that is, they process imported ore into metal. Since the process of smelting non-ferrous metals is very energy-, water- and labor-intensive, it is not the metal itself that is exported, but cheap domestic electricity and other resources.

As for re-import operations, their existence is associated with the import from abroad of previously exported domestic goods that have not been processed there. They can be products that could not be sold at auctions, returned from a consignment warehouse, rejected by the buyer, and others.

Along with the usual export-import transactions for the sale of goods, each of which ends with the receipt or payment of a sum of money for an export or import product, so-called barter transactions or counter-compensatory trade are widely used in the practice of international economic relations. Countertrade includes transactions for the sale of goods, when there are counter obligations of exporters to purchase products from importers for a part or the full value of the exported goods. The whole variety of counter transactions, depending on the organizational and legal basis or the principle of compensation, can be divided into three groups: barter transactions on a non-currency basis, trade compensation transactions on a monetary basis and industrial compensation transactions.

The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using the chosen deflator. In general, the nominal value of international trade has a general upward trend (Table 1).

Table 1 - VOLUME OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE (in billion dollars) 1991 1996 2001 World: exports 3485 5213 6485 imports 3598 5263 6315 Industrialized countries: exports 2458 3169 3666 imports 2537 2957 3502

Developing countries: exports 986 1790 2363 imports 1033 2066 2567 In a broader sense, exports and imports can include not only the international movement of goods, but also factors of production with international mobility (capital, labor). For example, the supply of equipment to Russia for an enterprise owned by a West German firm can be regarded as both an import of goods and an import of capital. The participation of Russian specialists in the operation of a metallurgical plant in India can be considered an export of goods (services for maintenance) or the export of labor (labor).

The pace of development of foreign trade is different between different groups of countries. The growth rates of the foreign trade of developing countries consistently exceeded the growth rates of trade of developed countries throughout most of the 1990s (Table 2). High rates of development of international trade reflect global trends of deepening the division of labor, specialization and cooperation of production.

Table 2 - GROWTH RATES OF FOREIGN TRADE FOR SEPARATE GROUPS OF COUNTRIES (in

%) 1991 1992 1993 1994 Exports Industrialized countries Developing countries 2.8 4.2 1.5 8.6 7.1 9.6 9.0 10.4 Imports Industrialized countries Developing countries 2, 3 4.3 1.5 10.3 9.9 12.4 10.4 8.8 The main volume of international trade falls on developed countries, although their share slightly decreased in the first half of the 1990s due to the growth in the share of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The main growth in the share of developing countries occurred due to the rapidly developing newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia (Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong) and some Latin American countries. The largest world exporters in 1994 (in billion dollars) - USA (512), Germany (420), Japan (395), France (328). Among developing countries, the largest exporters are Hong Kong (151), Singapore (96), Korea (96), Malaysia (58), Thailand (42). Among the countries with economies in transition, the largest exporters are China (120), Russia (63), Poland (17), Czech Republic (13), Hungary (11). In most cases, the largest exporters are also the largest importers in the world market. The most significant trend is the growth in the share of trade in manufacturing products, which accounted for about 3/4 of the value of world exports by the mid-1990s, and the reduction in the share of raw materials and foodstuffs, which accounted for about 1/4 (Table 3).

Table 3 - WORLD EXPORT Commodities 1983 1998 Agricultural products 14.6 12.0

Foodstuffs 11.1 9.5 Agricultural raw materials 3.5 2.5 Extractive industry products 24.3 11.9 Ores, minerals and ferrous metals 3.8 3.1 Fuels 20.5 8.8 Industrial goods 57.3 73.3 Equipment and vehicles 28.8 37.8 Chemicals 7.4 9.0 Semi-finished products 6.4 7.5 Textiles and clothing 4.9 6.9 Iron and steel 3.4 3.0 Other finished goods 6 .3 9.2 Other goods 3.8 2.8 This trend is typical for both developed and developing countries and is a consequence of the introduction of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies. The most significant group of goods within the manufacturing industry are equipment and vehicles (up to half of the export of goods in this group), as well as other manufactured goods- chemical goods, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, textiles. Within the framework of raw materials and food products the largest commodity flows are food and beverages, mineral fuels and other raw materials, excluding fuel. The growth rate of international trade consistently exceeds the growth rate of world industrial production; the growth rate of international trade of developing countries is on average higher than the growth rate of international trade of developed countries. Industrialized countries account for about 2/3 of world exports by value, while developing countries, including countries with economies in transition, account for about 1/3 of world exports. In the commodity structure of world exports, more than 2/3 are products of the manufacturing industry, and its specific gravity increases, and about 1 / 3 - for raw materials and food products.

Table 4 - Dynamics of Russia's trade balance in % 1990 1996 1999 1. Machinery, equipment and transport. goods 17.6 7.8 7.1 export import 44.3 37.0 41.9 2. Mineral products 45.5 46.9 50.4 export import 2.9 3.8 2.5 3. Metals , drag. stones and products from them 12.9 26.4 27.8 export import 5.4 6.1 - 4. Chemical products. industry 4.6 8.1 8.2 export import 10.9 15.6 16.1 5. Timber and pulp and paper products 4.4 4.3 - export import 1.1 4.3 - 6. Textile and textile products 1 .0 0.9 -

export import 9.3 4.3 3.0 7. Raw hides, furs and products from them export 0.2 0.5 - import 1.0 0.4 - 8. Food products and agricultural. raw materials export 2.1 3.7 - import 20.3 24.5 24.3 9. Other goods export 11.8 1.4 0.5 import 4.8 4.0 2.1 In 2000 Russia's foreign trade turnover increased by 32% compared to the previous year (in 1999 it decreased by 16.7%), exports grew by almost 44% (a decrease of 2.2%), imports - by about 11% (a decrease of 34.7%). The positive trade balance exceeded 60 billion dollars, foreign exchange reserves approached 30 billion dollars. In 2000, compared with 1999, Russia's foreign trade turnover with non-CIS countries increased by 31%, with the CIS countries - by 28%. The share of the CIS countries in Russian exports decreased to 14% against 16% in 1999, and increased to 30% in imports against 27%.

The main factor in the increase in the value of exports was the increase in world prices for oil and other major export goods(for oil - 1.4 times, for gas - 1.6 times). Both Russia's specialization in the export of raw materials and the dependence of its economy on exports have intensified. About 75% of the export volume fell on the products of the fuel and energy complex and metallurgy. Export of raw materials amounted to approximately 35% of GDP, all exports - about 40%. Such ratios are typical for a developing country, whose economy is completely dependent on income received from the supply of raw materials to the external market. This is the position Russia is in. This was clearly manifested during the industrial recovery in 2000, which was based mainly on the growth of foreign exchange earnings from energy exports. The fall in oil prices at the end of the year opened up the prospect of an economic downturn for the country.

outdated park industrial equipment does not leave hope that in the near future Russia will be able not only to expand, but even to restore its former, rather modest position as an exporter of engineering products and other industrial products high degree processing. All the more urgent is the need for structural restructuring of the country's economy, without which it is difficult to claim a more advantageous position in the world market. In 2000, industrial growth and a sharp increase in foreign exchange earnings gave a good chance for this.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in 2000 trade and political obstacles to the development of exports remained. Almost all significant Russian exports are subject to restrictive measures abroad, with the exception of energy resources: ferrous and non-ferrous metals, fertilizers, chemical products, nuclear materials, textiles, etc. Often, anti-dumping investigations are resorted to without evidence. However, while investigations are ongoing (and they continue for months), our exporters are forced to refrain from deliveries. After all, if the fact of dumping is recognized, they can be fined, the amount of which is several times higher than the cost of the goods sold. As a rule, such investigations end in the dismissal of charges, however, during this time, importers have time to switch to other suppliers and Russian enterprises lose the market. The positions of domestic exporters in such circumstances are significantly weakened by the protracted transition to the international system accounting and the slow displacement of snowy forms of payment from domestic trade.