4) political leadership (policy implementation) in private affairs;

5) political principles, beliefs, opinions or sympathies of an individual (women’s or other politics);

6) the totality of interacting and usually conflicting relationships between people living in society; relations between leaders and non-leaders in any social organism (political community, church, club or trade union);

7) political science.

Noah Webster

In the mass consciousness, politics is usually identified with the management of some process. For example, when it comes to “economic policy” or “education policy,” this means that problems that have accumulated in the economy or education require attention and control from the state. Such attention is expressed in the formation of development tasks and the determination of the means by which the assigned tasks can be solved, based on the capabilities of the state. Another meaning of the term “politics” in everyday consciousness is associated with the characteristic of the active human principle: the ability to consciously set goals and determine the means of achieving them, as well as the ability to compare costs and results. In this case, politics is identified with the concept of “strategy”.

In the political science dictionary under politics refers to a special type of activity associated with the participation of social groups, political parties, movements, and individuals in the affairs of society and the state.

The core of political activity is activities related to the implementation, retention, and opposition to power. Political activity covers several areas: public administration, the influence of political parties and movements on the course of social processes, political decision-making, political participation. Political sphere closely connected with other public spheres. Any phenomenon: economic, social, and cultural, can be politically charged, associated with the impact on the authorities.

Political activity– there is activity in the sphere of political and power relations. Political relations- these are relations between subjects of the political system on issues of gaining, exercising, and retaining power. In theory and practice, political activity is often associated with coercion and violence. The legality of using violence is often determined by the extremeness and rigidity of the political process. As a result of political activity, the interaction of institutions of the political system, the implementation of political decisions and guidelines, the political process is formed and developed.

Political activity can be active and passive, spontaneous and purposeful; an important part of political activity is political leadership, which includes the following links:

· Development and justification of the goals and objectives of society, social group

· Determination of methods, forms, means, resources of political activity

· Selection and placement of personnel

POLICY STRUCTURE

Directions of government activity to satisfy the aggregate public interests can be called policy directions. There is an internal policy - that is, one that is focused on resolving internal state problems - maintaining order, ensuring the development of the country, and the well-being of its citizens. Foreign policy includes the resolution of interstate contradictions; its task is to defend the interests of the state on the world stage. Allocated to modern world and international politics. It is not simple government activity, rather - supranational. The United Nations, the Council of Europe and other similar organizations will participate in it.

We can also talk about different types of policies in relation to the areas public life that need to be regulated by the state. (This issue is discussed in more detail in the paragraph “Functions of the State”). We can talk about policies in the field of culture, science, and the fight against organized crime. Politics represents, in its entirety, activities aimed at exercising power, at achieving society’s goals and objectives, ensuring a higher standard of living than before, social harmony and stable development.

Exercise: Give examples of the implementation of the state’s domestic and foreign policies using knowledge of history

Politic system- a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them.

Functions of the political system:

Determination of goals, objectives and ways of development of society;

Organization of the company's activities;

Distribution of spiritual and material resources;

Coordination of different political interests;

Promotion of various norms of behavior;

Stability and security of society;

Involving people in political life;

Monitoring the implementation of decisions and compliance with standards.

Basic elements of the political system:

a) Institutional subsystem - political organizations: parties and socio-political movements (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, interest clubs), the state is allocated to a special structure.

b) Communication subsystem - a set of relations and forms of interaction between classes, social groups, nations and individuals.

c) Normative subsystem - norms and traditions that define and regulate the political life of society: legal norms (constitutions and laws refer to written norms), ethical and moral norms (unwritten ideas about good and evil, truth and justice).

d) Cultural-ideological subsystem - a set of political ideas, views, perceptions and feelings that are different in content; 2 levels - theoretical (political ideology: views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories) and practical (political psychology: feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions).

Classification of political systems

a) Depending on the source of power and dominance in the power-society-individual relationship: democratic and non-democratic (authoritarian and totalitarian).

b) Open (competition) - closed (purpose).

c) Military - civilian - theocratic.

d) Dictatorial (reliance on violence) - liberal (freedom of the individual and society).

Democratic systems are built on the principles of individualism, humanity (man is the main value), responsibility, equality, social justice, initiative, sovereignty of the people, plurality of opinions, tolerance, freedom, presumption of innocence, criticality, gradual change; and non-democratic ones are based on collectivism, casteism, political passivity, a system of subordination, indoctrination of citizens, state guardianship, the use of any means to achieve set goals, utopianism (blind faith in certain ideals), radicalism, violence.

Exercise: use historical examples to illustrate the types of political systems

Depending on the source of power, we can talk about open and closed political systems. Open systems are characterized by free competition and the availability of opportunities for everyone to realize their desire to participate in political life. Moreover, this openness should extend to all spheres of life - when filling any position, a competition is announced and the most qualified specialist is selected according to previously known criteria. On the contrary, in closed systems everything is decided on the basis of acquaintances, family ties, bribes, and personal preferences. Professionalism in this case fades into the background, and if competitions for filling positions are held, this is done formally with pre-known results. Thus, we can talk about two types of boards. In the first case, the government can be gotten rid of without bloodshed, primarily through elections. In this case, the transfer of power from one group to another is not accompanied by a complete destruction of political institutions and social traditions. The second type assumes that the government can only leave in the event of a coup, successful uprising, conspiracy, civil war, etc.

The rest are very close to the considered classifications. Thus, some divide all political systems into military, civil and theocratic. In this case, the main criterion is the dominant position in the state of one of three groups with significant authority and power. In the modern world, most countries have civil power, but there are still states dominated by the military (primarily in Africa and South America) or religious leaders (Asian and some African countries). There is also a division into dictatorial (reliance on violence) and liberal (protection of personal freedom) systems.

The most important task of political science as a science is to study the functioning of the political system and its constituent institutions.

Questions:

1. Define the concepts: politics, political system, political activity, political relations, political leader

2. What does political activity include? Give examples of political activity.

3. What is a political system? What are the elements of a political system?

4. What bases for classifying political systems do you know? Explain using historical examples.

Tasks:

1. Work with text:

German sociologist Max Weber(1864-1920): politics "is extremely broad meaning and covers all self-direction activities. They talk about the foreign exchange policy of the banks, the discount policy of the Reichsbank, the policy of the trade union during a strike; one can talk about the school policy of an urban and rural community, about the management policy of a corporation manager, and finally, even about the policy of a smart wife who seeks to manage her husband.” “Politics... means the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, be it between states, or within a state between the groups of people that it includes... Whoever is involved in politics strives for power: either to power as a means subordinate to other goals (ideal or egoistic), or to power “for its own sake” in order to enjoy the sense of prestige that it gives.”

Questions:

- Based on the proposed text, determine the main meaning of the concept “policy”.

- Which policy subjects are named in the text? Give examples of their political activities.

2. Pastemissing words in text fragments:

Fragment 1. _________________ is “the activity of __________ bodies, associations of citizens and individuals, aimed at defending their interests and associated with the desire for ___________, its possession and implementation,” and “participation in state affairs.”

Fragment 2. ___________ politician is one who managed to maintain his _____________, combining them with the interests of others, who managed to gain __________ over the situation, over himself, over others.

Fragment 3. _________________ (translated from Latin means “legality”) - means recognition of the right to manage and agreement to obey ________________; the ability of the authorities to form a belief in the optimality and fairness of existing political institutions for a given society.

3. Continue the statements:

Politics is an art because ___________________________________

Politics is a science because ___________________________________

Politics is akin to business because ___________________________________

Politics is like sport when ________________________________

4. Working with quotations: Choose one quote from those provided. Express your attitude to the author's position. Justify based on historical examples.

A) “The rules of morality and virtue are holier than all others and serve as the basis of true politics” ()

B) “Politics must be a science and an art, always resting on a certain philosophy and morality, on a certain philosophical and moral understanding of all life, both personal and public” (E. Benes)

C) “Politics is a relentless choice between two evils” (D. Morley)

D) “Everything that is morally evil is also evil in politics” ()

E) “The path to the ennoblement of politics is to strengthen its conformity with the tenets of religion” (Thomas Aquinas)

E) “The art of politics is the art of doing so that it is beneficial for everyone to be virtuous” (C. Helvetius)

G) “In politics, for the sake of a certain goal, you can enter into an alliance even with the devil himself - you just need to be sure that you will draw the line, and not the devil you” (K. Marx)

5. Prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Political consciousness and political behavior" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points

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Political practice(from Greek πρακτικος - active,
active) - material, objective, goal-setting activity
subjects of political life, which characterizes their attitude towards
politics and participation in it is the second component of the structure
political system.

Political practice allows us to evaluate a particular country,
era, behavior (activity) of subjects of political life.

Political practice is determined by state and legal
institutions, cultural and historical traditions, social
psychological, national, religious characteristics
people, their economic structure.

Political practice is a state of various
political forces competing for influence and leadership. She
changeable and dynamic, differentiated on various grounds:

political beliefs, culture, level of professionalism,
breadth of social base, degree of legality, etc.

Within the framework of political life, its subjects enter into
political relations, guided by political norms -
rules of the political game: moral norms, common sense,
sense of proportion, taking into account the balance of forces, formal or
unspoken agreements.

Political norms reflect political values.
Political norms- these are the rules for achieving absolute and
relative, necessary and contingent political values.

Political guidelines- fundamental provisions or
developed by the political elite and proclaimed party
leaders.

Political norms are closely related to legal norms (see.
topic 8), since the Constitution of the country, its constitutional laws
are not only legal, but also political documents.

The same connection exists between political and legal relations and processes: “High-profile” trials have
political significance. Nevertheless, political process has and
independent significance as a form of life of the political system,
evolving in time and space. It is different from
other social processes: economic, ideological and
etc., may have a specific end result (victory in elections,
formation of a party, etc.).

The political process has its own content, structure, stages,
subjects and object, resource base, spatial and temporal
characteristics, micro- and macroscales, dynamics, etc., which
studied in special disciplines.

The third structural component of the political system is
political ideology has an even closer connection with
social - legal, religious, philosophical,
natural sciences, scientific and technical, etc. consciousness.

Political ideology- system of views and doctrines,
developed by political science, which expresses the attitude
to political reality.

Political ideology is one of the effective organizational,
regulatory, control instruments that determine
life activity of society and man, functionally related to
law and state, with other structural elements
political system. In turn, political ideology can
be institutionalized in the relevant groups,
unions, parties, movements...

Political ideology has its own subject matter,
methodological, functional side, interacts with
philosophy, jurisprudence.

Political consciousness consists in the subject’s perception of that
part of the reality surrounding him, which is connected with politics,
in which he himself is included, as well as the actions associated with it and
condition. It reflects the degree of familiarity of the subject with politics,
psychological and rational attitude towards it, affects his
political behavior.

Abstract on the topic: Democracy: theory and political practice

1. Ancient and medieval ideas about democracy

The term “democracy” (from the Greek demos - people and kratos - power), first encountered by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, means “power of the people” or “democracy”.

The first, most developed form of democratic government is considered to have developed in the ancient world - in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, in ancient city-polises - direct democracy. It involved public - sometimes directly in city squares - discussion critical issues development of the state: approval of laws, declaration of war and conclusion of peace, appointment of senior officials, passing sentences. Participation in government was considered not only the right, but also the duty of a free citizen, whether he was a rich aristocrat or a poor one, was encouraged financially and was assessed as the most worthy occupation of the free.

Let us highlight the differences between the ancient understanding of democracy and the modern one:

1) the democratic state system did not guarantee individual freedom, which was considered as part of the state (society - state - individual acted in an undivided form);

2) the existence of slavery and class division of free citizens was perceived as natural.

Many symbols of democracy came to us from the times of Ancient Greece and Rome (the ideas of the rule of law, equality of citizens before the law, equality of political rights became an integral part of democratic traditions).

The greatest thinkers of antiquity saw dangerous trends in strengthening the power of a spontaneous crowd that, in their opinion, did not possess high intelligence (this power is defined by the term “ochlocracy”). They considered it reasonable in a democratic government to have a ruling elite and provide civil rights to various groups of the population in accordance with their property status and professional interests.

The further development of ancient democracy confirmed the correctness of their conclusions: democracy, in the conditions of an increasing share of the lower class - the fetov - increasingly turned into a “riot of the mob”, and this process led first to an oligarchic tyrannical coup, and then to the complete liquidation of ancient civilizations.

The medieval period in the history of human development is characterized by the establishment of the absolute power of monarchs, a rigid class division of society, a strengthening of the role of the church in state and public life, and restrictions on the rights and freedoms of broad sections of the population. Despotic forms of government permeated all levels of state and public life, completely subordinating the economic and cultural activities of citizens, their personal lives to the power of the overlord - the supreme ruler, the feudal owner.

At the same time, the Middle Ages were marked by the emergence of the first representative institutions (1265 - Parliament in England; 1302 - Estates General in France; 16th century - Zemstvo Councils in the Moscow State, etc.). Already in the early Middle Ages, in the activities of these institutions one could observe three essential element modern parliamentary democracies: publicity of power, its representative nature and the presence of a mechanism of checks and balances (the purpose of which is to prevent the concentration of all power in the hands of any one institution, class or estate).

The socio-economic and political-ideological situation also affected the views of medieval thinkers, their ideas about the state structure and the role of man in the life of society.

In secular political thought The ideas of local and class democracy and self-government prevailed.

Firstly, the possibility of participation of representatives of various, primarily propertied, classes in parliamentary activities was substantiated, which, although of an extremely limited, deliberative nature, provided the opportunity to participate in the development and adoption management decisions, in government activities.

Secondly, the content and functions of local forms of self-government were determined (for example, zemstvos in Russia, “free cities” such as Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen in Germany or the veche form of government in Ancient Novgorod and Pskov). Such forms of democratic expression, although they were under the full control of the monarch and the local aristocracy, at the same time provided the population with the opportunity to exercise certain civil rights, primarily the right to manage the affairs of their locality. The same goals were served by the development of the guild organization of crafts and trade, and the emergence of political and religious guilds - prototypes of future political parties.

Another direction in understanding the problems of government and democracy in the Middle Ages was the search for the source and boundaries of the power of the monarch, his right to invade the spiritual life of his subjects. This analysis was carried out by theologians who, while justifying the need for socio-economic inequality of classes, the divine origin of the absolute monarchy, the dominant position of Christian ideology, at the same time defended the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility of humiliating their human dignity and the interference of secular authorities in the area of ​​human spiritual life, and also the accountability of the monarch's power to divine laws.

The largest representatives of philosophical and theological thought of the Middle Ages, defending the positions of “medieval democracy”, were A. Augustine and F. Aquinas.

Thus, Aurelius Augustine (354-430), believing in the divine origin of earthly state power, at the same time defined it as a “great robber organization.” Citizen in socially completely subordinate to this power, but has the right to respect for his human dignity, for God still remains the supreme judge over him.

Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1226-1274), already at the end of the Middle Ages, also substantiated the class structure of society and the need for a state that has divine origin. Like ancient thinkers, he condemns democracy as a form of oppression of the rich by the poor, ultimately leading to tyranny. Correct form he considers the monarchy to ensure the stability of the state; at the same time, a person must have a set of human rights determined by eternal divine law.

Thus, the ancient and medieval ideas about power and democracy, which contributed to the development of modern concepts of democracy, can be summarized in the following provisions:

• democracy is one of the forms of political structure of society, based on the broad participation of various social groups of the population in its governance;
• the most important characteristic of democracy is the ability of every citizen to enjoy rights and freedoms, first of all, to be independent from other members of society, to have freedom of opinion, to participate in public and state life on an equal basis with other citizens; property rights;
• democracy is inseparable from the duty of the citizen and the system of government as a whole to obey the laws and not violate the rights of other people - members of society;
• democracy is incompatible with ochlocracy - the power of the masses, the crowd, suppressing an individual, supreme in resolving state issues, which ultimately leads to tyranny and terror;
• the best form of a democratic structure of society is to divide it into managers and governed, who transfer rule to the worthy and, under their leadership, perform productive functions; at the same time, they retain the right to control those in power and early termination their powers, as well as the possibility local government;
• rulers must take care of the welfare of their subjects and strengthen the state, rationally, based on the law, organize the life of society, and ensure that every citizen has the opportunity to use his inalienable rights and freedoms.

2. Modern theories democracies: classical liberal democracy, collectivist, pluralistic democracy

The crisis of absolutism, which occurred as a result of major socio-economic transformations in Europe: the achievement of the industrial revolution, strengthening trade and economic ties, the growth of cities, the destruction of the medieval management system, changed ideas about the political structure of society, the role of man in society, his rights and freedoms, possible participation in political life. They were formulated in their most complete and expanded form at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. in the concepts of democracy of classical liberalism by T. Hobbes, J. Locke and C. Montesquieu. The main ideas expressed by these thinkers can be summarized as follows.

At the pre-state stage, humanity was in a state of nature, man lived according to natural laws, had a wide range of freedoms and used them at his own discretion. Thus, the initial state of human nature, its essence, is individual freedom. However, its use should not lead to a violation of the rights of other people, otherwise it may cause, according to Hobbes, a “war of all against all,” enmity among people, and disrupt the functioning of the social organism. Even if relations between people in a state of nature presuppose, according to J. Locke, “mutual goodwill,” at a certain stage social development they require consolidation, settlement in the form of an agreement, which is called “public”.

A social contract presupposes an unspoken form of agreement between people to transfer the functions of regulating relations between them to the state, which is the guarantor of preventing anarchy and hostility between members of society, ensuring individual rights and freedoms of citizens.

Power should be divided into parliamentary, judicial and military (according to J. Locke) or legislative, executive and judicial (according to C. Montesquieu). According to the creators of the concept of political pluralism, only the separation of powers prevents abuses by rulers, restrains their ambitions, and prevents any form of despotism, thereby ensuring guarantees of freedom for citizens.

Thus, the liberal idea of ​​a social contract as the basis for the creation of a state and the concept of separation of powers as a condition for limiting the power of the sovereign (ruler) determined the principles and conditions of the relationship between a citizen and the state, the permissible limits of state intervention in the area of ​​personal rights and freedoms of citizens:

• equality of all citizens in the use of their natural rights;
• autonomy of the individual in relation to the state and society, man is the only source of power that has granted the state the rights to manage the entire society and requires it to guarantee personal rights and freedoms;
• an individual has the right to defend his position in relation to other members of society, to legally protest decisions of public authorities;
• separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, a clear definition of their functions and powers, as well as limitation of the scope of activity of the state itself, which does not allow it to interfere in the personal lives of citizens and the economic sphere of society;
• parliamentary form of representative democracy, providing for the transfer by citizens, as a result of elections, of the functions of governing the state to those persons who can protect legal rights and the freedoms of their constituents.

The concept of liberalism first received its legal embodiment in the Bill of Rights (England, 1689) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (France, 1789), which proclaimed the principles of freedom, property, personal security, and the right to resist violence as inalienable natural rights of the individual.

The concept of liberal democracy is criticized primarily for the absolutization of individualism, a person’s focus on solving his personal problems, on achieving personal success, which can lead (and does lead) to his withdrawal from public and political life, selfishness and isolation, unfriendliness towards other people, dulling of feelings of compassion. At the same time, the state, not having the right to interfere in the economic and financial sector, is limited in its ability to provide social support to the poor and “losers.”

Finally, like any form of representative democracy, liberal democracy narrows the rights of voters and does not allow them to actively influence politics or control the activities of voters. government agencies, and the choice of representative authorities may be random, formal and incompetent in nature, determined by the mood and emotions of the voter at the time of voting.

One of the concepts that opposes the individualist model of liberal democracy is the theory of collectivist democracy. It appeared in the era of the French Enlightenment; one of its creators is the famous philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), although many of his ideas are consonant with the theoretical constructs of liberalism. He, like many supporters of the liberal type of democracy, proceeds from the idea of ​​the natural state of people in the period before state development society and their conclusion of a social contract on the creation of a state for more favorable development public relations, strengthening private property, affirming the ideas of humanism and spirituality. However, he further disagrees with the position that society consists of individuals, and says that it is necessary for individuals to transfer their natural rights to the state after its creation. Harmony of social interests arises in the state, since the purpose of its creation is for it to take care of its citizens and fulfill the general will of the people, who are “always right.” The government receives only executive power, and legislative power must be exercised by the people themselves through direct discussion and adoption of laws through a plebiscite (referendum).

This concept of democracy removes a number of shortcomings of liberalism (absolute individualization, non-participation in political life, property inequality), however, the absolutization of the “general will” lays the foundation theoretical basis for the practice of suppressing the individual, intrusion of the state into the personal life of a citizen, depriving him of the right to express his own opinion, different from the opinion of everyone.

These ideas are reflected in the Marxist theory of state and democracy and in the practice of functioning of the political system of socialism and socialist democracy.

On the one hand, in the conditions of a socialist collectivist democracy, a citizen is actively involved in the political process, participates in mass political actions (demonstrations, meetings, elections), can control the activities of deputies at all levels, give them orders, and participate in the activities of self-government bodies at the place of residence and work. . This increases the civic activity of a member of society, a sense of responsibility for its development, patriotism and collectivism. However, collectivist democracy presupposes strict control over the behavior of each citizen, his forced inclusion in politics, the political-ideological and moral-ethical subordination of a person to the will of the majority, the prevention of pluralism of opinions and political opposition to the “guiding and guiding force of society” - the communist (socialist) party. As a result, the citizen lost his individuality and could not realize the political rights and freedoms written in the constitution.

On the other hand, this led to the omnipotence of the Communist Party itself, its apparatus, its replacement of state bodies, and the strengthening of authoritarian, despotic methods of government by the party elite. Thus, collectivist democracy, while formally opening up the possibilities of direct, active participation of every citizen in political life, making this his duty, in fact limited individual rights and freedom, leading to strict control of his spiritual and personal life, contributing to the emergence of anti-democratic, totalitarian regimes.

The limitations of both the liberal concept of democracy and its alternative - collectivist democracy - led to the creation and real implementation in many countries of the concept of pluralistic democracy, developed at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Its creators are M. Weber, J. Schumpeter, G. Laski, S. Lipset and others.

Political pluralism (from the Latin pluralis - plurality) means the inclusion in the political life of the country of many social movements and parties that have different political goals, ideological concepts and are fighting among themselves for power. The main forms of such struggle are defending their election programs before voters, winning as many of their votes as possible in elections and thereby obtaining the maximum number of parliamentary seats or winning presidential elections. The main difference between pluralistic democracy and its liberal type is that during the election campaign and activities in parliament, political parties and movements represent the interests of specific social groups, through which the interests of the individual are realized. By joining a political party or supporting it in elections, a citizen can show greater political activity, more persistently influence the activities of parliament, defending his economic, political, cultural interests as common to a given group or social stratum.

The economic basis of pluralistic democracy is the diversity of forms of ownership, social division labor and the corresponding division of society into social groups with different volumes and types of property and performing numerous professional, social and cultural roles in society. Hence the diversity of economic, socio-political and spiritual interests of representatives of these groups, and the competitiveness in defending them.

The political basis of pluralistic democracy, its legal form are: a constitutionally established system of rights and obligations of citizens and the associations they form, first of all - freedom of speech and conscience, ensuring equal participation in political life; the principle of separation of powers; parliamentary form of government; assertion of the rule of law in all spheres of society.

The social basis of pluralistic democracy is to ensure the right of every member of society to participate in all forms of its life activity, be it work and leisure, family life, business, health protection, sports, culture and education. Of course, the degree of such participation varies from person to person, which is defined as their individual characteristics, abilities, and social status, material and financial capabilities and other factors. However, the state in a pluralistic democracy guarantees the very possibility of equal access to social values, as well as a minimum of benefits that provide the opportunity for the manifestation of independent activity, an active principle.

The spiritual and ideological basis of pluralistic democracy is the creation of an atmosphere of openness in society, the encouragement of diversity of opinions, the development of creativity, the inadmissibility of regulating a person’s spiritual life and imposing uniform ideological and political-ideological dogmas on him. This is also related to the study and accounting in the work of management bodies. public opinion population, ensuring free activity of the media.

The disadvantage of the concept of pluralistic democracy is that it is based on the ideal model of a citizen as an active participant in the political process, through his activities supporting the group and movement that potentially represents his interests. In fact, behind political movements and parties there is not a mass electorate, but only its most active part. The remaining voters either avoid elections or do not delve deeply into the content of election programs and make their choice at random. Therefore, votes will go either to two or three large political parties, whose programs are not very diverse, or to small election associations, i.e. they will still be absorbed by larger and more authoritative parties and movements. In addition, control over the activities of parliamentarians by ordinary voters is impossible.

Thus, an analysis of the three main modern concepts of democracy - liberal, collectivist and pluralistic - shows that, for all their shortcomings and limitations, each of them is based on a fundamental principle: a citizen has the right to express his political will and defend his socio-economic and political interests.

Supporters of different concepts are unanimous in identifying the general characteristics of democracy:

• recognition of the people as the source of power (sovereign) in the state: popular sovereignty is expressed in the fact that it is the people who own the constituent, constitutional power in the state, that they choose their representatives and can periodically replace them, and have the right to directly participate in the development and adoption of laws through referendums ;
• equality of citizens: democracy presupposes at least equality of voting rights of citizens;
• subordination of the minority to the majority when making decisions and their implementation, respect for the rights and interests of the minority;
• election of key state bodies.

Any democratic state is built on the basis of these fundamental characteristics. At the same time, modern democracies based on the values ​​of liberalism strive to comply with additional principles: human rights, the priority of individual rights over the rights of the state, limiting the power of the majority over the minority, respect for the right of the minority to have their own opinion and defend it, the rule of law, etc. .

IN last years In political science, the theory of “waves of democratization” has become widespread, the creators of which believe that the establishment of modern institutions of democratic government took place in three stages, and in each of them this process affected different groups countries, and that the rise of democratization was followed by its reversal. S. Huntington in his book “The Third Wave. Democratization at the end of the 20th century." (1991) gives the following dating: the first rise - 1828-1926, the first decline - 1922-1942, the second rise - 1943-1962, the second decline - 1958-1975, the beginning of the third rise - 1974.

The concept of the “third wave of democratization” is based on the following basic principles:

• transition to democracy in various countries means that there is much in common between various transition processes and forms of democratization and they should be considered as special cases of a global political movement;
• democracy is an intrinsic value, its establishment is not associated with pragmatic, instrumental goals;
• the plurality of possible forms of democratic structure is recognized (recognition and support for the existence of diverse associations, autonomous from each other and from the state, pursuing unequal, sometimes contradictory goals);
• democratization at the end of the 20th century. The process of political change in the world does not end, the history of democracy does not end - the concept of the “third wave” assumes the sinusoidal nature of the development of the democratic process, which can lead to both a rollback of some countries and a “fourth wave”, but already in the 21st century.

3. Electoral systems and elections

Elections are not only an essential feature, an attribute of democracy, but also its necessary condition. “Democracy can be defined as a regime in which rulers are appointed through free and fair elections,” say authoritative French scientists P. Lalumiere and A. Demichel. And the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, states: “Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. The will of the people must be the basis of the government's authority; this will must find expression in periodic and unfalsified elections, which must be held under universal and equal suffrage, by secret ballot or by other equivalent forms ensuring freedom of voting.”

Improving the electoral system is one of the most pressing tasks of the political development of young Russian democracy.

What is the electoral system?

The electoral system is the procedure for organizing and conducting elections to representative institutions or an individual leading representative (for example, the president of the country), enshrined in legal norms, as well as in the established practice of state and public organizations.

The electoral system is included as component into a political system, but itself, like any system, is divided into structural components, of which two stand out as the most common:

• suffrage - theoretical and legal component;
• the electoral procedure (or electoral process) is a practical and organizational component.

Electoral law is a set of legal norms regulating the participation of citizens in elections, the organization and conduct of the latter, the relationship between voters and elected bodies or officials, as well as the procedure for recalling elected representatives who have not lived up to the trust of voters.

The term “suffrage” can also be used in another, narrower meaning, namely as the right of a citizen to participate in elections: either as a voter (active suffrage) or as an elected person (passive suffrage).

The classification of elections is based on the principles of electoral law and several criteria: the object of elections (presidential, parliamentary, municipal - in local, usually city, self-government), terms (regular, extraordinary, additional), etc.

Of greatest interest is the classification of elections according to the principle of electoral law, which reflects the degree of legal, democratic development of a particular country and its electoral system. In this case, the classification takes on the form of paired opposites:

• universal - limited (qualified);
• equal - unequal;
• direct - indirect (multi-degree);
• with secret - with open voting.

Signs characterizing high degree democracy of the electoral system, stand first. Most countries of the modern world have proclaimed in their constitutions or special electoral laws the rights of citizens to general and equal elections by secret ballot. Let's look at these principles in more detail.

Universality of elections presupposes the right of all citizens who have reached the legal age to participate in elections, and this right means both active and passive suffrage. However, both in a number of countries are limited by the so-called electoral qualifications: property (possession of property or income of a certain amount), residence qualification (residence in a given territory for at least a period specified by law), educational qualification (for example, knowledge of the state language of the country), age and etc.

The qualifications for passive suffrage are usually much more stringent than the qualifications for active suffrage. Thus, in Canada, only a person who owns real estate can enter the Senate; in the UK, in order to obtain the right to be elected, an electoral deposit in the form of a fairly large sum is required. The age limit for deputies of the upper house of parliament - where it is bicameral - is especially high: in the USA and Japan - 30 years, in France - 35, in Belgium and Spain - 40. At the same time, it should be noted that the process of democratization in the world does not bypass licensing restrictions. For example, since the 1970s. age limit for majority voters developed countries reduced to 18 years of age.

Elections are considered equal if a uniform norm of representation is ensured - the number of voters represented by one candidate for an elected seat. This principle is easy to violate different ways. For example, with the help of the so-called “electoral geometry” (“electoral geography”), i.e., dividing the country’s territory into electoral districts in such a way that the largest possible number of constituencies with supporters of this party by voters.

Regarding the elections in collegial bodies authorities, the following pattern can be noted: elections to local bodies, unicameral parliaments and the lower houses of bicameral parliaments are direct everywhere (in a number of countries the same is true for elections to the upper house, in particular to the US Senate); voting is secret, which is now typical for all civilized countries of the world.

A specific form of electoral activity of citizens is a referendum (from the Latin referendum - something that should be communicated), sometimes called (usually when resolving territorial disputes) a plebiscite (from the Latin plebs - the common people and scitum - decision, resolution). The first referendum in history was held in 1439 in Switzerland. A referendum is a popular vote, the object of which is any important state issue on which it is necessary to find out the opinion of the entire population of the country. For example, this may be a question about the statehood of a particular territory (plebiscites of 1935 and 1957 on the Saar region of Germany, bordering France) or about its independence (1995 referendum in Quebec, a French-speaking province of Canada), a question about the form of state government (referendums of 1946 in Italy and 1974 in Greece on replacing the monarchy with a republic), etc.

Like elections, there are referendums different types depending on the subject of voting, method of conduct and scope of application. A referendum is called constitutional if it is used to approve the constitution or amendments to it, or legislative if the subject of the referendum is a draft act of current legislation.

It should be noted the dual political nature of referendums: on the one hand, a referendum is capable (and ideally is called upon) to most fully reveal the will of the people on a particular issue or set of issues, on the other hand, the organizers of a referendum can make it the subject of an unimportant issue in order to distract people's attention away from truly pressing problems. It also happens that the will of the people, expressed in a referendum, is ignored and trampled upon by those in power.

As already mentioned, the electoral procedure constitutes the practical and organizational part of the electoral system.

It is necessary to distinguish between such often identified concepts as “election procedure” and “election campaign”.

The electoral procedure is the state's activities to organize and conduct elections. An election campaign (pre-election campaign) is the actions of direct participants in elections, parties competing in elections (parties, various public organizations, candidates themselves).

In addition, the election procedure as a set of organizational rules can remain relatively unchanged for quite some time. long time, during which more than one election campaign will take place. The election procedure regulates and regulates the election campaign, like a policeman at a street intersection regulating the flow of cars.

The election procedure includes: calling elections; creation of electoral bodies responsible for their conduct; organization of electoral districts, districts, precincts; registration of candidates for deputies; some financial support for elections; maintaining order during their implementation; determination of voting results.

An election (pre-election) campaign involves the nomination of candidates by opposing political forces, campaigning for them, etc.

The election campaign officially begins on the day of proclamation of the act calling elections (usually this is the prerogative of the state) and continues until the date of the elections. In fact, it takes its first steps long before the official start, as soon as it becomes known about the intention to hold elections.

The electoral struggle is the main field of activity of a political party in a democratic society, as opposed to a totalitarian one. Each party is concerned about expanding its electorate. The electorate (from Latin elector - voter) is a contingent of voters who vote for a party in elections. For example, the electorate of social democratic parties consists mainly of workers, intellectuals, office workers, and small owners; The electorate of the US Democratic Party, as a rule, includes people of color. The electorate is not some strictly defined social group, although it has some relative stability. From election to election, the electorate of a particular party changes both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, after Labor ousted the Liberals from the two-party system in Great Britain, the electorate of the former was largely replenished at the expense of the electorate of the latter.

Taking into account the fact that in the states of the modern world it continues (and in Russia it is in full swing) social differentiation, accompanied by the emergence of more and more new political parties and social movements, each of which claims to be a spokesman for the interests of the entire people, the issue of forming electoral blocs and unions becomes very relevant, since none of the parties is often able to achieve victory alone. Therefore, during the election campaign, parties and public organizations often form political blocs and alliances, concluding agreements for joint actions in order to ensure victory for candidates from parties in close positions.

However, this kind of pre-election diplomacy is not enough to win elections. A number of other factors are necessary: ​​the availability of financial resources to allow widespread election campaigning; authority, acceptability of the party in the eyes of voters; political novelty that challenges the old order; the political and personal attractiveness of the candidates nominated by the party, i.e. their image (from the English image - image); the thoughtfulness of the election program (platform) of a party or political bloc.

The culmination of the election campaign is Election Day. Unlike the noisy election struggle, the voting procedure itself is a secret, and therefore we learn the most interesting things about this procedure when the secret is either broken or has not yet been legitimized. The latter is typical for societies with an insufficiently developed culture.

It is known, for example, that when Napoleon Bonaparte decided to “legitimize” his dictatorship through a popular plebiscite, voting was held openly, under the strict supervision of the authorities, and in the army - by regiment, with soldiers voting in unison.

And nowadays there is similar examples. More recently, in Zaire, deputies to parliament were elected in city squares by shouting approval to candidates from a list read out by the mayor of the city, in Western Samoa the eldest votes for all members of his extended family, and in Swaziland voters “vote with their feet”, passing through one of the gates, for with which candidates for the electoral college of parliamentary deputies await them.

However, with the formation of civil society, the growth of its legal consciousness and the improvement of legal institutions, such voting methods acquire the features of anachronism.

In some countries, in order to avoid “election crush”, the number of candidates running in each electoral district is limited. So, in the UK this number should not exceed five. In addition, each candidate pays a fairly large cash deposit, which will be withheld if the candidate does not receive at least 5% of the total votes. A five percent threshold has been established in a number of countries (including Russia) and for parties. In many countries, the day before elections, pre-election campaigning is prohibited so that the voter can calmly weigh who to vote for.

Thus, the majoritarian system promotes the formation of a majority in government and tolerates the disproportion between the votes received and the mandates received.

A proportional system means that mandates are distributed strictly in proportion to the number of votes cast. This system is more widespread in the modern world. In Latin American countries, for example, elections are held only according to a proportional system. It is used in Belgium, Sweden and many other countries. The proportional system has two varieties:

• proportional electoral system at the national level (voters vote for political parties throughout the country; electoral districts are not allocated);
• proportional electoral system in multi-member districts (deputy mandates are distributed based on the influence of parties in electoral districts).
3) independence of deputies from their parties (such lack of freedom of parliamentarians can negatively affect the process of discussing and adopting important documents). Electoral systems have come a long way in their development. big way. During this process (in the post-war period), the formation of a mixed electoral system began, i.e., a system that should incorporate the positive characteristics of both majoritarian and proportional systems. Within the framework of a mixed system, a certain part of the mandates is distributed on a majority basis, the other - proportionally. Experience in improving electoral systems suggests that this system more democratic and effective in achieving political stability.

The electoral system in Russia has a relatively short history - about 90 years, counting from the law on elections to the first State Duma of December 11, 1905. The law, which put the curial system at the forefront, can hardly be called democratic, since it ensured unequal representation to different strata population. Even worse was the law of 1907, which lasted until the very end of the pre-revolutionary Duma.

During the Soviet era, elections became purely formal. Only in 1989 did the situation begin to change radically. But even then, during the elections of people’s deputies, some of the seats were reserved in advance for “ public organizations”(indicating “to whom - how much”), which, in essence, was a modification of the same curial system. This order was rejected a year later as anti-democratic.

On March 17, 1991, the first national referendum in the history of the country took place, and on June 12 of the same year, the first presidential elections in Russian history took place.

The current electoral system of Russia is determined by the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted by popular vote on December 12, 1993, and federal laws"About presidential elections Russian Federation" and "On the elections of deputies of the State Duma Federal Assembly Russian Federation" (1995).

The Constitution proclaims: “Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to elect and be elected to government bodies and local self-government bodies, as well as to participate in a referendum.”

Citizens of the Russian Federation receive active suffrage from the age of 18, passive suffrage - the right to be elected to the State Duma - from the age of 21 (for the post of president - from the age of 35, subject to a 10-year permanent residence on the territory of the Russian Federation). At the same time, participation in elections is declared voluntary, carried out on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

450 deputies are elected to the State Duma, of which 225 are elected in single-mandate districts (1 district - 1 deputy) and 225 in the federal electoral district in proportion to the number of votes cast for the federal lists of candidates for deputies nominated by electoral associations and blocs. In the first case, a person is elected, in the second, a party, bloc of parties or other public association is elected.

The Russian Federation has a mixed electoral system. In single-mandate constituencies, elections are carried out on the basis of a majoritarian system of relative majority.

In the federal district, selection is carried out according to the proportional principle, but this proportionality applies only to those parties, blocs, etc. that have crossed the 5% threshold, i.e. received at least 5% of the votes from those participating in the elections. Those who do not reach this figure lose their votes, as well as the right to representation in the Duma.

The current Russian electoral system is based on the experience of a number of states, both with rich legal traditions and those that have only recently begun to build a rule of law state. Of course, much in it is subject to verification and correction, perhaps quite thoroughly, but the important thing is that the electoral mechanism in our country has been created and is working.