Main types of communication and their characteristics. Settings for understanding-oriented communication Settings for understanding responses
Techniques of understanding communication are a set of rules, skills and abilities for working with people that can be learned and acquired without any special prior psychological preparation. An understanding-oriented subject in the role of a student, when interacting with a partner, focuses his attention primarily on the internal frame of reference (evaluation criteria, values, motives, problems) of his partner, and not on his own.
Why is it important to focus on the frame of reference (thoughts and feelings) of the interlocutor, and not on your own? The importance of this position is that the partner knows himself, his needs, his life situation and problems better than us. Therefore, we need to help him develop his thoughts, and not “push” him according to our ideas. The fact is that when we are trying to understand the inner world of another person and study his values, beliefs, ideals, etc., our usual form of interaction is to guide our partner by asking questions, especially those that we think will “ probe deeper and which, in our opinion, he had not yet asked himself.
Although these forms of interaction are necessary, they are usually useful only after that, how we have received certain information about how this other person himself imagines and experiences his situation or problem.
In addition, open communication with the person we want to understand and study will only occur when we are able to create a trusting relationship (climate, atmosphere, psychological contact). A sense of trust is essential for a partner to self-disclose without fear that he will be assessed biasedly, and his frankness will be used to his detriment. As communication practice shows, the following conditions or attitudes are essential for creating a climate of trust (or the emergence and development of psychological contact with the interlocutor):
An understanding, non-judgmental response to a partner’s thoughts, feelings and ideas;
Positive acceptance of the interlocutor as a person;
Consistency of one's own behavior when interacting with another person.
Installation is a person’s conscious readiness to react in a certain way in a specific situation in accordance with his needs, goals and objectives.
Let's take a closer look at these settings.
Setting up an understanding response. An attitude towards an understanding, non-evaluative response presupposes a conscious desire to respond to the thoughts and states of the interlocutor in order to see them through his eyes and grasp the quality of these states (fear, doubt, anxiety, anger, etc.). Its formation is associated with a person’s ability to understand and predict the thoughts and emotional state of a communication partner, as if putting himself in his place.
In psychology, this ability is called empathy. Therefore, in the literature on communication one can often find such concepts as “empathy”, “empathic communication”, which in content coincide with understanding communication.
An understanding response does not mean our agreement with what our partner says and feels, but is a manifestation of the desire to impartially understand his position and life situation without judging him. Such a response requires us to be able to temporarily get away from our own system of assessments and try to understand the experiences of the interlocutor, the state of his inner world. If he feels that his thoughts are understood and accepted correctly, he will begin to trust us and will be ready to further discuss issues that concern him, revealing his inner states.
The evaluative type of understanding of another person usually causes defensive reactions that prevent him from being open and developing his thoughts deeper, since subconsciously or quite consciously the interlocutor begins to fear hearing negative assessments, feeling that he is not understood and not accepted. Another reason why an evaluative response can cause defensive reactions in the interlocutor is that many people perceive these attempts as our invasion of their autonomy or as an attack on their right to have exactly the same thoughts, views, experience exactly the same emotional states and feelings.
So, when we try to study and understand another person and help him to understand his problems more deeply, then an understanding response contributes to the self-disclosure of the interlocutor’s feelings and thoughts, and an appreciative response hinders.
Setting the identity of the interlocutor- this is our readiness and desire to show unconditionally positive attention and respect to a person when communicating with a person, regardless of his strengths and weaknesses.
The more you are able to accept another person in the course of communication, accept what he says about himself and his problems, the more he is able to reveal himself - both good and bad, and therefore, the more freely and deeply he begins to discuss and analyze his thoughts , ideas and feelings. It is important to note that the attitude of accepting the interlocutor’s personality consists of a willingness to show genuine, rather than ostentatious, respect. That is, it is a willingness to show goodwill towards the partner’s personality as a whole, with all its positive and negative sides.
Setting your behavior to be consistent when interacting with an interlocutor, it means the sincerity of your behavior in communicating with him. In practice, consistency of behavior occurs when what we openly express to our interlocutor in words and gestures is consistent with what we really feel internally at the moment of conversation, and when we ourselves are aware of our internal emotional state.
Being completely consistent in your interactions with all people, all the time and in all situations is, of course, impossible and even undesirable. However, consistency of behavior is a very important condition in situations where partners seek to understand each other and want to develop relationships.
Summarizing the main components of understanding behavior in communication, we can say: you need to sincerely strive to obtain additional information about the thoughts and feelings of your partner without any evaluation, recognize the right of your interlocutor to differ from your ideas, personal characteristics, tastes, preferences, etc.; and also coordinate your verbal behavior with the emotional states that arise during the interaction.
This is a set of attitudes of the subject of communication, rules and specific methods of response aimed at understanding the partner and his problems, establishing psychological contact, studying his personal characteristics, finding out his point of view on the problem under discussion, etc.
The main thing in the technique of understanding is This is the orientation of the subject of communication to the internal system of values, assessments, motives and problems of the partner himself, and not to his own: he knows himself, his needs, his life situation and problems better than we do. In addition, open communication with a person will only occur when we are able to create a trusting relationship (climate, atmosphere, psychological contact). Essential terms To create such a climate of trust, the following attitudes of the subject of communication towards interaction with a partner are necessary:
· to an understanding, non-evaluative response to the partner’s thoughts, feelings, ideas and statements;
· positive acceptance of the interlocutor’s personality;
· on the consistency (congruence) of one’s own behavior when interacting with him.
These attitudes act as the main psychological mechanisms that realize the orientation of the subject of communication towards understanding, towards the internal frame of reference of the interlocutor.
Setting an understanding response means our conscious desire to respond to the statements and emotional states of our partner without any ratings, trying to understand them with his own eyes. That is why in the literature, understanding communication is often called “reflective”, “empathic”. An understanding response does not mean our agreement with what our partner says and feels, but is a manifestation of the desire to impartially understand his position and life situation without judging him. The evaluative type of understanding of a partner usually causes defensive reactions and makes it difficult for him to be open.
Setting the acceptance of the partner's identity- this is our readiness to strive to show him definitely positive respect, regardless of its merits and demerits. It is a willingness on our part to respectfully acknowledge his right to be as he is, regardless of our agreement or disagreement with him. The manifestation of such an attitude creates a “climate of security” and promotes openness and trust on the part of the partner.
Setting your behavior to be consistent in terms of content, it means, in a certain sense, the truthfulness and openness of one’s behavior in communication with a partner. Coherence of behavior is achieved when what we openly express to our interlocutor in words and gestures is consistent with our inner feelings and experiences at the time of conversation and when we are aware of our internal emotional states. In psychological terms, this means “inviting” a partner to an “exchange of trust.” To be completely consistent in communicating with all people, all the time and in all situations, is, of course, impossible and even harmful. However, consistency of behavior is the most important condition when partners strive to understand each other and develop relationships with each other.
Rules for understanding response. In order to more effectively understand your partner and develop psychological contact with him, it is advisable to adhere to a number of rules in communication:
· listen more, speak less yourself, “follow” your partner’s statements and emotions;
· refrain from making your assessments, ask fewer questions, do not “push” your partner to discuss those issues that he “should” talk about from your point of view;
· strive first of all to respond to personally significant information that is most closely related to the needs and interests of your partner;
· strive to respond to the feelings and emotional states of the interlocutor.
It may seem that these rules place us in an exclusively passive position in communication. But that's not true! The technique of understanding communication requires very careful listening, firstly, and, secondly, a high degree of selectivity in the selection of those What And How to react.
Techniques for understanding response. Response techniques are understood as a set of all possible behavioral reactions or acts in the real interaction of partners. In the psychological literature, other designations are used synonymously: type, type, method or form of response. These techniques are quite simple to understand, and we all use them to one degree or another in our lives. However, mastering them to the level of professional skills requires systematic effort. We list these techniques without substantive disclosure:
· simple phrases confirming the existence of contact (expression of attention and interest);
· paraphrasing statements and openly expressed feelings of a partner (expressing attention and checking the correctness of understanding);
· clarifying the interlocutor’s thoughts and feelings that are not expressed openly (reacting to what, in your opinion, is in your partner’s omniscience);
· probing the incompletely conscious emotional states of the interlocutor (“pulling” into the partner’s field of consciousness the causes of emotional states);
· silence as a response technique (conscious use of silence during a conversation);
· nonverbal reactions (conscious use of “body language” in communication);
· interpretation (an option for probing a partner’s not fully conscious experiences);
· summarizing (a variant of extended paraphrasing of a logically completed fragment of a conversation);
· encouragement and reassurance (a way of confirming what you want to understand and accept without judging the thoughts and feelings of the interlocutor);
· questions that clarify the position of the interlocutor (non-evaluative questions that are your reaction to what was said and expressed by the interlocutor in the conversation).
Everything that has been said about the technique of understanding communication can be depicted in the form of a diagram (Fig. 1), which clearly shows the basic provisions and rules of this technique.
Picture 1. The selective process of listening and responding when using the technique of understanding communication. Arrows indicate possible options understanding response to the interlocutor’s statements: solid - stronger, dotted - less strong in its psychological effect
Understanding communication skills are undoubtedly among the most important professional qualities modern business person. At the same time, professional activity requires the development of skills of a different kind, namely the skills of using directive communication techniques in working with people.
RUSSIAN STATE SOCIAL UNIVERSITY
Branch in Minsk
Course work
COMMUNICATION ATTITUDES AND CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH PERCEPTION IN ADOLESCENCE
Specialty "Psychology"
Correspondence department, 3rd year
Lokteva O.V.
Scientific adviser:
teacher
__________________________
Minsk, 2009
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION IN FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC LITERATURE
1.1. The essence of communication
1.1.1 Theoretical approaches to communication research
1.1.2 Structure and types of communication
1.1.3 Forms and levels of communication
1.1.4 Phases of communication
1.1.5 Functions and means of communication
1.2. Classification of communicative acts
1.3. Attitudes in communication
1.4. Conditions for the effectiveness of speech perception
CHAPTER 2. EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNICATION ATTITUDE AND CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH PERCEPTION IN ADOLESCENCE
2.1. Organization of the study
2.2. Research methods and techniques
2.3. Analysis and interpretation of results
CONCLUSION
LIST OF SOURCES USED
APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
Communication between people is the most important feature of human existence. Without it, activity, formation and assimilation of spiritual values, formation and development of personality are impossible. Communication accompanies all these processes and contributes to their implementation. Communication is multifaceted, primarily because it is implemented at different levels: countries and peoples, parties, groups and individuals can communicate, accordingly, the interaction between the parties in this process will differ in its social significance. In addition, communication can manifest itself in different ways: be direct or indirect, vary in type and, finally, in the process, people can exchange thoughts, feelings, experiences, work skills, etc. .
There are people who are not very talkative. They may listen to you with attention, but at the same time you will not see it. It seems to you that they simply don’t want to listen to you, but in fact, your interlocutor has such a habit and for him this is the norm of communication. People who either have a respected position in society or are tall and large in size often behave this way. Often, when talking with such people, we feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, and sometimes we stop, because... it seems to us that we are not being listened to very carefully or are simply being ignored. This is often facilitated by our own attitude before the conversation. If someone told us something that does not bring honor to the interlocutor before the conversation, then we become alienated, and not always legitimately so.
In this course work we will try to reveal the main types of attitudes in communication, and also try to determine the conditions for effective listening.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
Relevance of the research topic. Communication processes began to be studied most actively in the second half of the 20th century. Thus, in the 1950-1960s, the greatest scientific interest was in ways of formalizing a message, its encoding and decoding, and the transfer of information from sender to addressee. These studies were carried out within the framework of the then new sciences: cybernetics and computer science. Communication in them was considered as a one-way information process, in which the greatest attention was paid to ways of formalizing the message, and most of definitions of communication boiled down to the idea of transmitting information from the author to the addressee.
The style of communication (verbal and non-verbal), the behavior of the manager, the interaction of employees during work, the writing of official documents and other aspects can either improve the work of the enterprise or cause significant harm to it.
The goal is to determine attitudes in communication, as well as to understand the conditions for effective speech perception.
The tasks of the work include:
Conduct an analysis of theoretical literature on the problem of communication and effective speech perception in adolescents;
To study the psychological characteristics of attitudes in communication and effective speech perception in adolescents;
Explore communication attitudes that contribute to the effective perception of speech by adolescents;
Draw conclusions;
The object of the study is adolescents 16-18 years old.
The subject of the study is the analysis of attitudes in communication and the conditions for effective perception of speech by adolescents.
Research hypothesis: there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills.
Research methods and methodology: The study used methods of theoretical analysis, methods psychological diagnostics: ; . Method of statistical data processing Mann-Whitney U test.
The theoretical basis of the study was the works of foreign and domestic scientists: B.G. Ananyeva, T.G. Grushevitskaya, V. Siegert, V.B. Kashina, I.S. Kona, A.A. Leontyev, T. Peters, R. Waterman and others.
Experimental base research: 46 teenagers, 11th grade students of secondary school No. 33 in Minsk.
Scientific novelty of the research:
1. Theoretical prerequisites for psychological support for the development of communicative qualities of adolescents have been identified and systematized.
3. The specifics of the development of communicative qualities in adolescence have been determined.
Practical significance is that The data obtained can be used by psychologists and teachers when working with adolescents, including in the process of psychological counseling.
The course work consists of an introduction, which describes a brief description of problems of communication and communication skills of adolescents. General characteristics work in which the relevance of the research topic is substantiated, its methodological and theoretical foundations are determined, goals and objectives are indicated, a hypothesis is formulated, the object and subject of the research are determined, and the practical significance of the work is revealed. The course work consists of two chapters: theoretical and practical; as well as a conclusion and a list of sources used. The course work consists of 56 pages. When writing course work 31 main sources were used.
CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION IN FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC LITERATURE
1.1. The essence of communication
Interpersonal communication stands a necessary condition the existence of people, without which the full formation of not only individual mental functions, processes and properties of a person, but also the personality as a whole is impossible. That is why the study of this most complex mental phenomenon as a systemic formation that has a multi-level structure and only to it inherent characteristics, is relevant for psychological science.
The essence of interpersonal communication lies in the interaction of person with person. This is precisely why it differs from other types of activity when a person interacts with any object or thing.
The individuals interacting satisfy their need to communicate with each other, exchange information, etc. For example, a discussion between two passers-by conflict situation, which they have just witnessed, or communication when young people get to know each other.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, interpersonal communication is almost always woven into one activity or another and acts as a condition for its implementation.
Interpersonal communication is not only a necessary component of human activity, the implementation of which involves their cooperation, but also a prerequisite for the normal functioning of their communities (for example, a school class or a production team of workers). When comparing the nature of interpersonal communication in these associations, both the similarities and differences between them attract attention.
The similarity lies in the fact that communication in them is a necessary condition for the existence of these associations, a factor on which the success of solving the problems facing them depends.
Communication is influenced not only by the main activity for a given community, but also by what this community itself is. For example, if this is a school class, then it is important to know how well it is formed as a team, what evaluative standards dominate in it, if it is a team, then what is the degree of development of labor activity, the level of production qualifications of each employee, etc.
The features of interpersonal interaction in any community are largely determined by how its members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they predominantly evoke in each other and what style of behavior they choose.
The communities to which a person belongs form standards of communication and set patterns of behavior that a person learns to follow on a daily basis when interacting with other people. These communities directly influence the development of his assessments, which determine his perception of other people, relationships and style of communication with them. Moreover, the more authoritative the community is in the eyes of a person, the stronger the impact.
When interacting with other people, a person can simultaneously act as both a subject and an object of communication. As a subject, he gets to know his partner, determines his attitude towards him (this can be interest, indifference or hostility), influences him in order to solve a specific problem. In turn, he himself is an object of knowledge for the one with whom he communicates. The partner addresses his feelings to him and tries to influence him. It should be emphasized that a person’s presence simultaneously in two “hypostases” - an object and a subject - is characteristic of any type of direct communication between people, be it communication between one student and another or between a student and a teacher.
Communication, being one of the main types of human activity, not only constantly reveals the essential characteristics of the individual as an object and subject of communication, but also influences the entire course of its further formation, primarily on such blocks of properties that express a person’s attitude towards other people and to yourself. In turn, the changes that occur in people under the pressure of unfolding communication affect, to one degree or another, such basic properties of the individual, in which his attitude to various social institutions and communities of people, nature, public and personal property, and labor.
1.1.1 Theoretical approaches to communication research
There are various theoretical models of social communication. Within the framework of the psychoanalytic model, based on the theoretical teachings of S. Freud and C. Jung, communication is understood as the repression by an individual of his unconscious drives.
The existentialist model views communication as “thrown into the world.” This understanding of communication is explained by the development in the twentieth century. such a system of morals as individualism. Relationships that develop under conditions of individualism organize a person’s life on the principles of isolation and self-isolation, which gives rise to such a cultural phenomenon as lack of communication. Lack of communication is the disintegration of everyone social connections, an extreme form of mutual alienation. As a result, individuals develop a feeling of loneliness, a sense of the meaninglessness of a person’s short-term and useless existence in the world. Philosophers called this situation a “crisis of communication.”
In the context of behaviorism (the science of behavior), the basis of communication is not language as a system, but direct speech signals, by manipulating which one can educate a person of any kind.
The same understanding of communication can be seen in the semantic model of Y. Lotman and U. Eco. In the game model of communication, the main representatives of which are E. Bern and J. Huizinga, communication is a game. Personalism considers communication as the internal metaphysical ability of a person to discover the feelings of another (I - Other relationship). In the understanding model of communication, the main representatives of which are M. Weber, G. Gadamer, G. Shpet, the main result of communication is a person’s understanding of another person, the so-called mutual understanding.
The futurological approach to communication is most clearly represented by the theory information society(D. Bell, A. Toffler, G. McLuhan). In this theory, the means of communication are considered as the only stimulus and source social development. Information here is the basis of culture and all cultural values.
Thus, the movement of knowledge, emotional experiences, volitional influences in social time and space is understood as social communication. Examples of such communication include a friendly conversation, a school lesson, a theatrical performance, business communication, a television show, and a computer search for information.
Communication activities are carried out in society in three forms:
1) communication – dialogue between equal partners; 2) control – the purposeful influence of the communicator on the recipient of information; 3) imitation - borrowing patterns of behavior, communication styles, and lifestyles of some members of society by others. Thanks to imitation, language, traditions, knowledge, and skills are passed on from generation to generation.
There are two types of communication: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronous (horizontal) communication is realized through oral and written communication channels between contemporaries. Thanks to such communication, unity, cohesion, and consolidation of society are ensured. Synchronous communication is necessary to solve current social problems, coordinate the actions of different social groups, for the life activity of the ethnic group in the present tense.
In diachronic (vertical) communication, information of spiritual content is transferred from generation to generation. In this way, social memory is formed. Diachronic communication, therefore, preserves the ethnic community, the movement of language, and traditions.
Communication is closely related to information. The transfer of information can be carried out in three communicative forms: 1) monologue, where such communicative actions as unidirectional transfer of information from the organizer of communication to the recipient of information predominate; 2) dialogical, in which the subjects of communication interact and are mutually active. With this form of communication, information is exchanged. In dialogic communication, the development of agreed solutions becomes important; 3) polylogical – organization of multilateral communication. Such communication is in the nature of a struggle to master the communicative initiative and is associated with its most effective implementation.
If the goals of communication are the exchange of information of predominantly emotional content, then the goals of communication are: exchange and transmission of information; formation of skills and abilities, development of professional qualities; formation of attitude towards oneself, towards other people, towards society as a whole; exchange of activities, innovative techniques, means, technologies; changing values and motivation of behavior; exchange of emotions.
Depending on the purpose of the message, five models of communication are distinguished in the scientific literature: cognitive, persuasive, expressive, suggestive, ritual. Each of these models is characterized by its own goals and expected results, organizational conditions, communicative forms and means.
1.1.2 Structure and types of communication
The structure of communication is distinguished:
1) communication side;
2) interactive side;
3) the perceptual side.
The communicative side of communication is expressed in the exchange of information between people.
Features of the process of information exchange in the process of human communication:
1) not only the transfer of information occurs, but also its formation, clarification and development;
2) the exchange of information is combined with the attitude of people towards each other;
3) there is mutual influence and influence of people on each other;
4) the communicative influence of people on each other is possible only if the codification systems of the communicator (sender) and the recipient (receiver) coincide;
5) the emergence of specific communication barriers of a social and psychological nature is possible. Structural components of communication as a communicative
activities:
1) the subject of communication is the communicator;
2) the object of communication is the recipient;
3) subject of communication - the content of the information sent;
4) actions of communication - units of communicative activity;
5) means of communication - operations through which communication actions are carried out;
6) product of communication - education of a material and spiritual nature as a result of communication.
The interactive side of communication is manifested in the interaction of people with each other, i.e. exchange of information, motives, actions. The purpose of interaction is to satisfy one’s needs, interests, achieve goals, plans, and intentions. Types of interaction:
1) positive interactions aimed at organizing joint activities: cooperation; agreement; device; association;
2) negative - interactions aimed at disrupting joint activities, creating obstacles for them: competition; conflict; opposition; dissociation. Factors influencing the type of interaction:
1) the degree of unity of approaches to solving problems;
2) understanding of responsibilities and rights;
3) ways to solve emerging problems, etc.
The perceptual side of communication is expressed in the process of perception, study and evaluation by partners of each other.
Structural elements of social perception:
1) subject interpersonal perception- the one who perceives (studies) in the process of communication;
2) the object of perception is the one who is perceived (cognized) in the process of communication;
3) the process of cognition - includes cognition, feedback, elements of communication.
In the process of communication, a person appears in two forms at once: as an object and as a subject of knowledge.
Factors influencing the process of interpersonal perception:
1) characteristics of the subject: gender differences (women more accurately identify emotional states, strengths and weaknesses of the individual, men - level of intelligence); age, temperament (extroverts perceive more accurately, introverts evaluate); social intelligence (the higher the level of social and general knowledge, the more accurate the perception assessment); mental condition; health status; attitudes - previous assessment of objects of perception; value orientations; level of socio-psychological competence, etc.
2) features of the object: physical appearance (anthropological - height, build, skin color, etc., physiological - breathing, blood circulation, functional - posture, posture and gait and paralinguistic - facial expressions, gestures and body movements); social appearance: social role, appearance, proxemic features of communication (distance and location of communicators), speech and extralinguistic characteristics (semantics, grammar and phonetics), activity features;
3) the relationship between the subject and the object of perception;
4) the situation in which perception occurs.
Types of communication
Types of communication by means:
1) verbal communication- carried out through speech and is the prerogative of man. It provides a person with wide communicative opportunities and is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it;
2) non-verbal communication occurs with the help of facial expressions, gestures and pantomimes, through direct sensory or bodily contacts (tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person). Nonverbal forms and means of communication are inherent not only to humans, but also to some animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins). In most cases, nonverbal forms and means of human communication are innate. They allow people to interact with each other, achieving mutual understanding on emotional and behavioral levels. The most important nonverbal component of the communication process is the ability to listen.
Types of communication by purpose:
1) biological communication is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs and is necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism;
2) social communication is aimed at expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, and personal growth of the individual. Types of communication by content:
1) material - exchange of objects and products of activity that serve as a means of satisfying their current needs;
2) cognitive - transfer of information that expands horizons, improves and develops abilities;
3) conditional - exchange of mental or physiological states, influencing each other, designed to bring a person into a certain physical or mental state;
4) activity-based - exchange of actions, operations, abilities, skills;
5) motivational communication consists of transferring to each other certain motivations, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction.
By indirectness:
1) direct communication - occurs with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: arms, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.;
2) mediated communication - associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchange of information (natural (a stick, a thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural objects (sign systems, recording symbols on various media, printing, radio, television, etc.));
3) direct communication is built on the basis of personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the very act of communication (for example, bodily contacts, conversations between people, etc.);
4) indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, which can be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, interethnic, group, family levels). Other types of communication:
1) business communication - communication, the purpose of which is to achieve any clear agreement or agreement;
2) educational communication - involves the purposeful influence of one participant on another with a fairly clear idea desired result;
3) diagnostic communication - communication, the purpose of which is to formulate a certain idea about the interlocutor or obtain any information from him (this is the communication between a doctor and a patient, etc.);
4) intimate-personal communication - possible when partners are interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact, occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.
Communication between people occurs in various forms, which depend on the level of communication, its nature, and purpose. Most typical forms Interpersonal communication is anonymous, functional-role, in which a special place is occupied by work relationships, informal and intimate family communication. The above classification is, of course, conditional. It does not exhaust all possible forms of communication in which a person can participate.
Let's look at the basic forms in more detail.
Anonymous communication is interaction between strangers or people with no personal relationship. It is understood as any temporary connections between people in which they act as citizens, residents of a city or town, passengers of a train, plane or public transport, spectators of a cinema or sports match, visitors to a museum or exhibition, etc. This refers to their prior and, as a rule, subsequent unfamiliarity. They meet, enter into relationships with each other and go their separate ways. They are anonymous, nameless in relation to each other.
Formal-role communication involves varying durations of communication between people who have certain roles. Participants in such communication perform certain functions in relation to each other: buyer - seller, passenger - conductor, waiter - client, doctor - patient, etc. Service relationships are also functional-role in nature, but they are characterized by significant duration; they, as a rule, have great importance in people's lives. Their participants know each other to a greater or lesser extent, at least as workers, members of the same team.
Informal communication represents all kinds of personal contacts outside official relations colleagues, members of any organizations. Of course, informal communication is also possible with workmates, but only if it goes beyond the scope of work relationships. Examples could be non-official contacts with workmates, acquaintances, meetings with friends, comrades in sports and other hobbies, etc. A special area of informal communication is communication between close people or family members.
Forms of communication:
1) monologue - when only one of the partners is assigned the role of an active participant, and the other - a passive performer (for example, a lecture, notation, etc.);
2) dialogue - characterized by cooperation between participants - interlocutors or communication partners (for example, conversation, conversation);
3) polylogical - multilateral communication, which has the character of a struggle for communicative initiative.
Levels of Communication
In foreign and domestic psychology There are different views on levels of communication. Levels of communication according to B.G. Ananyev:
1) micro level - consists of the smallest elements of interpersonal communication with the immediate environment with which a person lives and most often comes into contact (family, friends);
2) meso level - communication at the level of the school, production team, etc.;
3) macro level - includes such large structures like management and trade.
Levels of communication according to E. Bern:
1) rituals are a certain order of actions by which a custom is performed and consolidated;
2) pastime (watching TV, reading books, dancing, etc.);
3) games-types of activity, the result of which is not the production of any product;
4) intimacy - intimate relationships;
5) activity - a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding and transforming the surrounding world.
The most common level system in Russian psychology is:
1) primitive level - involves the implementation of a communication scheme in which the interlocutor is not a partner, but a necessary or interfering object. In this case, the contact phases are performed in the extension from above or (with a frankly strong partner) from below. A similar level of communication is offered in a state of intoxication, anger, in a state of conflict, etc.;
2) manipulative level - the “partner - rival” scheme is implemented in a game that absolutely must be won, and winning is a benefit (material, everyday or psychological). At the same time, the manipulator catches and tries to exploit the partner’s weaknesses;
3) standardized level - communication based on standards, when one of the partners (or both) does not want contact, but cannot do without it;
4) conventional level - the level of ordinary equal human communication within the framework of accepted rules of behavior. This level requires partners to have a high culture of communication, which can be considered as an art and to master which another person has to work on himself for years. It is optimal for resolving personal and interpersonal problems in human contacts;
5) gaming level - characterized in the same way as the conventional one, but with an increased positive focus on the partner, interest in him and the desire to generate a similar interest in himself on the part of the partner. The main thing in the game is to intrigue and interest your partner. At this level, the human connection that has arisen is valued more than the informative component of communication. Ideal for teaching;
6) level business communication- in comparison with the conventional level, it implies an increased focus on the partner as a participant in collective activities. The main thing at this level is the degree of mental and business activity of the partner, his involvement in the common task. Ideal for group activities, for brainstorming etc.;
7) spiritual level - the highest level of human communication, which is characterized by mutual dissolution in a partner, high spontaneity of thought and feeling, extreme freedom of expression; the partner is perceived as a bearer of the spiritual principle, and this principle awakens in us a feeling that is akin to reverence.
1.1.4 Phases of communication
Of all the phases of communication, the most critical phase is preparation, if it turns out to be possible. Communication needs to be planned, the right place and time must be chosen, and the expectations for the results of communication must be determined. The first phase of communication is making contact. Self-tuning is important here, it is important to feel the state, the partner’s attunement, and get comfortable yourself. It is important to win over your partner and ensure a smooth start. This period ends with the establishment of psychological contact.
Next comes the phase of concentrating attention on something, some problem, the task of the parties and developing topics, then - motivational sounding. Its purpose is to understand the motives of the interlocutor and his interests. Then comes the phase of argumentation and persuasion if there are differences of opinion. And finally, the phase of fixing the result. This is always a critical moment in a relationship. In contrast to a break, a breakup is the end of contact. And a mistake in this phase can sometimes completely change the outcome of a long-hour conversation. We must always end communication in such a way that there is a prospect of continuation.
1.1.5 Functions and means of communication
The functions of communication are the roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence:
1) the information and communication function consists of the exchange of information between individuals. The components of communication are: the communicator (transmits information), the content of the message, the recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of information transfer is manifested in the understanding of information, its acceptance or non-acceptance, and assimilation. To carry out the information and communication function, it is necessary to have a unified or similar system of codification/decodification of messages. The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems;
2) incentive function—stimulating the activity of partners to organize joint actions;
3) integrative function - the function of uniting people;
4) the function of socialization - communication contributes to the development of skills for human interaction in society according to the norms and rules accepted in it;
5) coordination function - coordination of actions when carrying out joint activities;
6) function of understanding - adequate perception and understanding of information;
7) the regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior in the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;
8) the affective-communicative function of communication is to influence emotional sphere a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary. Means of communication are methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal. Verbal means of communication are words with assigned meanings. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures for the blind, or spoken silently. Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form of verbal means. It is divided into:
1) dialogical speech in which two interlocutors take part;
2) monologue speech - a speech spoken by one person.
Written speech is used when oral communication is impossible or when accuracy and precision of each word is necessary.
Nonverbal means of communication are a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes replaces it. About 55-65% of information is transmitted using non-verbal means of communication. Nonverbal means of communication include:
1) visual aids:
a) kinesthetic means are visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive-regulatory function in communication. Kinesics includes expressive movements manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait;
b) direction of gaze and visual contact;
c) facial expression;
d) eye expression;
e) posture - the position of the body in space (“leg to leg”, crossed arms, legs, etc.);
f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation towards him, personal space);
g) skin reactions (redness, sweating);
h) auxiliary means of communication (physique features (gender, age)) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoo, mustache, beard, cigarette, etc.);
2) acoustic (sound):
a) related to speech (loudness, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text); 6) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighs, etc.);
3) tactile - associated with touch:
a) physical influence (leading a blind person by the hand, etc.);
b) takevika (hand shake, pat on the shoulder).
1.2. Classification of communicative acts
If we consider the communicative acts themselves according to their types and types, then, depending on different classification criteria, we would get different varieties: in content: production, practical-everyday, interpersonal-family, scientific-theoretical; by form of contact: direct, indirect. For example, correspondence is an indirect form of contact between communicants, and personal conversation is a direct form of contact; by type of communication: bidirectional and unidirectional. For example, reading a book, or watching a movie, or playing the role of a spectator at a performance is a unidirectional communicative act. But if you applaud actors, or write a letter to the author of a play, book or film director, or reward singers with applause, the connections become bidirectional, mutual; according to the degree of mutual correspondence between communicants: high, satisfactory, insignificant, unsatisfactory, negative. If the degree of mutual correspondence is unsatisfactory (in such cases, it is about communicative incompatibility and even about complete psychological incompatibility), it is appropriate to state: “they speak different languages.” Although they do not mean different national languages at all, but, for example, completely incompatible passions, interests, manners of speaking and communicating in general; according to the results: from negative (“he completely misunderstood me, distorted my thought”) through zero (“we just can’t understand each other”) to positive (“he understands me, and I understand him”). The scale of negative and positive results is quite stretched: we can understand someone in such a way that he will be delighted, or we can simply cause a nod of approval. Misunderstanding can border on a distortion of understanding. That is why it is necessary to strive for maximum success in communication.
There are people who are not very talkative. They may listen to you with attention, but at the same time you will not see it. It seems to you that they simply don’t want to listen to you, but in fact, your interlocutor has such a habit and for him this is the norm of communication. People who either have a respected position in society or are tall and large in size often behave this way. Often, when talking with such people, we feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, and sometimes we stop, because... it seems to us that we are not being listened to very carefully or are simply being ignored. This is often facilitated by our own attitude before the conversation. If someone told us something that does not honor the interlocutor before the conversation, then we develop alienation, and not always legitimately so.
1.3. Attitudes in communication
Installation is a very unpleasant thing. It can interfere with the start of a conversation or lead to conflict in the communication process.
Attitudes of all kinds play an extremely important role in the theoretical and practical activities of a person and clearly appear in communication processes. In order not to get into trouble yourself and not to embarrass your interlocutor, you need to know what an attitude is, how it develops in the conditions of communication, how it can be changed and how it should be managed. Do this experiment in your mind (or in practice!). You and your friend are in the cinema. The lights went out and the film began showing. Everyone (including you and your friend) is closely watching what is happening on the screen. Suddenly you ask your friend (in a whisper, of course, but so that you can be heard): “Please remember the name of an egg-laying mammal. Platypus, or what?” If the film is not thematically connected in any way this moment with your platypus and zoology in general, you can rest assured that your question will not even be heard. They will definitely ask you again. But if you ask something relevant regarding the plot of the film, the characteristics of the actor, etc., they will answer you. Even if you ask your question more quietly than the first. Why? Yes, because it is “appropriate”, “clear” what refers to the most probable in a given situation, what is customary to talk about in a given situation, what is included in the “setting for the perception of a given film”. Everything else turns out to be outside the field of attention, and therefore is not recognized or understood.
Very often we have to face a situation where our own joke does not cause the expected reaction, be it laughter or at least a smile. What if we ourselves don’t find anything funny in a friend’s joke? What to do then? Moreover, if someone made fun of someone else, and this second one was offended. Usually those people who have a great sense of humor start communication well, but those who lack this so important feeling find it difficult to start a conversation or get to know each other. You can agree with this, you can disagree, but the fact remains that not every one of us has a sense of humor. The difficulty of discovering that you have an underdeveloped sense of humor lies in the fact that there are no people who do not laugh, who do not find it funny. But laughter can be caused by different reasons. For example, it is not appropriate to laugh at the sight of a fallen plump woman walking down the street carrying a heavy bag of groceries. But there are people for whom this is funny, and the funnier the more different things roll out of the fallen bag, the more noise there is. A person who can laugh at this probably cannot think of anything funnier than removing a chair from under a person sitting on it. We can almost say with complete certainty that such a “joker” has not yet matured to understand what is truly funny and has little or no knowledge of the best examples of humor. But this does not mean that a sense of humor cannot be developed.
INSTALLATIONS
With the outlined approach, the speech activity norm of communication appears as a collection of speech communicative duties and individual rights. In relation to the ethical component of speech culture, the basic concept can be considered the national cultural and speech tradition, and the principle of description is the calculation of the basic ethical attitudes of speech communication with the subsequent description of the behavioral implementation of these attitudes in speech tactics and methods of speech use used by communicants in all or some situations .
The ethical line of verbal communication is ensured not only by special formulas of politeness and parallel nominations of different stylistic colors. Ethical balance is also achieved through speech behavioral operations in the field of all text categories (people communicate through texts) and the choice of speech strategies.
The formulation of the ethical content of communication is fundamentally variable, and it is necessary for the speaker: the option is carried out on the basis of ethical guidelines and psychological characteristics communicators (anthropological factor is the leading one), but also taking into account the sphere of speech activity (intralinguistically this is a factor of functional style), as well as social roles communicants (intralinguistically - the factor of speech proficiency, or speech competence). When describing the core of the ethical component - general ethical standards - factors of secondary importance can be pushed aside. A complete description of the component requires taking into account all three groups of factors.
To demonstrate the stated provisions, we will focus on parity as the main ethical principle of verbal communication and politeness as its main cultural guideline. In terms of analysis - colloquial texts as material for relaxed informal speech communication, those with a psychological goal, i.e. communication itself, communication as a humanitarian value, is placed by communicants above informational and logical goals. Such a hierarchy of goals - phatic communication, according to T. Vinokur - is typical for conversational conversation, chatter as a conversational genre, perhaps for flirting. For comparison, the official business style is chosen as a set of texts with opposite dominants, primarily with the dominance of logical content.
The focus on phatic communication gives each communicant the following rights: 1) to subordinate the logical content of the conversation to the phatic content, aimed at communication itself; 2) for self-affirmation and open self-expression; 3) to axiological freedom, i.e. the ability to subject any subject of speech and component of a communicative act to individual subjective assessments; 4) to regulate the partner’s speech behavior within the framework of normative and cultural interactions and in accordance with one’s own attitudes and well-being; 5) on individual speech style: 6) on reciprocity on the part of the speech partner in all parameters of communication.
The named rights (the intuitively collected list of them is, of course, very approximate) turn into the following responsibilities for the communicant: 1) master the technique of phatic communication and subordination of the logical content of speech to it; 2) master the methods of self-expression and know the border between culture and “anticulture” in this area; 3) use a wide range of assessments, correlating them with the system of moral rules of the cultural community and with the personality of their speech partner; 4) remember the reciprocity of communicative interests and adequately respond to the regulation of your speech by your partner; 5) correlate individual habits and creative needs with the cultural-speech set of communicative qualities of speech and the speech competence of the partner, observe the measure in the field of speech freedom; 6) maintain a modal politeness strategy.
Technologically, the realization of the rights and responsibilities of an individual is expressed in specific speech-activity operations, an inventory of which should form the “body” of a scientific description of the ethical component of speech communication. The basis for grouping such operations is not yet clear, but grouping on a categorical-textual basis within the framework of a procedural view of the text can be proposed as an initial experience.
Let us take the category of text in its procedural development and try to trace the speaker’s operations with the topic in terms of rights and obligations, focusing on the first dichotomy from the above lists: the “right” to subordinate the logical content of the conversation to the phatic and the “obligation” to master the cultural technique of phatic communication. In a generalized textual form, this right is realized as the admissibility of the polythematic nature of the subject-logical series in phatic speech communication under the influence of subjective-modal dominance.
In a more specific operational view, from the perspective of the rights/responsibilities of the communicator, the following is observed:
1. The communicant has the right to initiate a subject topic that is interesting from his point of view for her joint discussion.
The obligations imposed on the initiator are that the topic must be acceptable from a general ethical position (objective-ethical aspect), as well as from the ethical position of the speech partner (subjective-ethical aspect). The themes of the initial episodes in colloquial-phatic genres have long been comprehended and are largely international. These include news, weather, art and other topics focused on entertainment and optimism.
Phatic communication traditionally imposes restrictions on complex and painful topics of everyday life, a set of which is also meaningful in the cultural tradition (death, personal tragedies, etc.). If these topics cannot be avoided, then they are not initiated at the very beginning of communication and are not discussed deeply and extensively. The exception is conversation - a joint complaint, which is in circulation in Russian speech life.
The key verbs of thematic initiatives are SPEAK / SAY, TELL AND HEAR / LISTEN, LISTEN. The repertoire of remarks includes standard formulas: they say that ...; you have already heard that...; listen to what happened yesterday..., as well as individual options: You'll never guess what happened yesterday......! Well, yesterday you looked like you were looking into water...; No, it’s still in vain that they don’t hire me as a psychic...
The attitude of politeness and parity obliges the communicator to from time to time request a subject topic from the speech partner, i.e. transfer to him the right of initiative in the subject area: Tell us about yours, please. What's new with you? Well, who does what and how?
For comparison, in a business conversation there is an operational similarity (the phatic beginning is necessary to create a comfortable atmosphere of communication), but the selection of initial topics is much stricter, the repertoire of replicas of the thematic initiative is more standard.
2. At the stage of development of a subject-logical topic, the communicator has the right to a relatively extensive development of the conversation (oriented towards general laws logic and rhetoric: division into subtopics, argumentation and illustration, comparison, etc.), as well as the duty to correct this process depending on the role of the speech partner. A partner can be an equal developer of the topic, an attentive listener, an opponent of the speaker, etc., so the options for deploying the topic will be very different.
The harmonious flow of the phatic genre presupposes constant concern for speech equality or, in the case of recognized inequality, respect for the role status of communicants. It is the responsibility of each communicator to ensure that the speech partner is interested in the topic and to show their own interest or disinterest. If the speech partner participates in the development of the topic through lengthy statements, clarifying questions, “assent” and emotional reactions, then the initiator has the right to continue the subject topic. If the intellectual and emotional activity of the speech partner tends to zero, then there is a thematic rejection or thematic fatigue, and then the interlocutor who proposed the topic is obliged to change it or respond to the partner’s proposal for a replacement.
In a business dialogue, the communicator has the right to thematic movement only within the framework of a given subject-conceptual layer, dictated by the practical and pragmatic purpose of communication. An arbitrary proposal of an unrelated topic is not accepted (although it may indicate an additional hidden strategy of the initiator).
Setting up parity requires a change of roles and constant balancing between one’s own interests and the interests of the interlocutor. Cultural imbalance can be restored through special speech techniques. Thus, abuse in the subject-thematic sphere, the desire to speak in a specific topic more than the speech partner wishes, can be regulated by the latter with the help of “speech restraints”: “zero reaction” to what is said, which after some time is realized by the communicative leader (normal); a brief remark aimed at closing the topic: Well, this is the same as always; I've already been told about this; You already said; Yes, yes, it happens, but it’s hard to believe; Do you think so?; a slight rebuke to the interlocutor: Is it worth worrying so much? In my opinion, this is nothing; Do not make mountains out of molehills. Containing someone else's speech, especially emotionally charged, is an action whose ethics are always in question. This is a complex speech cultural technique, bordering on manifestations of “anticulture”; it is regulated by the tact of the interlocutors, and there are the fewest speech standards here.
3. Replacing the subject-logical topic is a way to advance the conversation in a subjective-modal direction. Probably, each genre of phatic communication is characterized by its own rhythms of thematic fragments, but in any of them the speakers change subject-logical topics. This operation is reflected in the corresponding clichéd constructions: Shouldn’t we change the subject? Let's move on to another topic; This is a difficult topic; It is better not to touch on this topic, etc. and nominations: a sore subject; blessed topic; a related topic, etc. The regulation of the thematic series is carried out with the help of a large number of individualized reactions, often in the form of a hint: Don’t rub salt in my wound; Don't touch on a topic that is sore for me.
Perhaps the volume of subject-logical development of a topic in relaxed informal communication is regulated by national speech culture not only logically and psychologically, but also biologically. “Thematic fatigue” can be determined, in particular, by biological rhythms, climatic fluctuations, and the state of health of the speaker.
4. Completion of the text of the analyzed genres is characterized by the elimination of the subject-logical theme (topics) in favor of the subjective-modal content sphere. Only a reminder of the topic is used: About... I'll call you tomorrow; Oh... don't worry, everything will be fine; s... - you did it great. The examples already given show that the speakers made a selection of topics raised earlier. When parting, they mention the topic that made the greatest impression and was presented as the most significant for the interlocutor, i.e. functionally paramount. This role can be either practically important or purely intellectual or aesthetically interesting.
Each of the positions discussed above can be transformed into a number of cultural and speech recommendations - operational rules for constructing a text of a certain style and genre. Let us mentally add a similar consideration of other categories and the derivation of evaluation rules, psychological self-disclosure of influence on the interlocutor. In general, behind their set there will be a linguoculturological phenomenon of the rights and responsibilities of the individual in speech communication.
The antinomy of speech communicative rights and obligations can be placed at the center of a communicative orthology, which will be capable of describing typical speech operations in the generation of text, as well as defining various types personalities in verbal communication: law-abiding and law-abiding communicants, those who violate the laws of communication, those who exceed and underestimate their rights, etc. The main thing is that orthology with this approach can become not a warehouse of things, but a guide to action.
1.4. Conditions for the effectiveness of speech perception
Of all the skills that define communication, listening is the most essential and the one that needs to be improved the most. “The talent of an interlocutor is distinguished not by the one who willingly speaks himself, but by the one with whom others willingly speak” (La Rochefoucauld). Poor listening is the main cause of ineffective communication as it leads to misunderstandings, mistakes and problems.
In the process of human communication, the difference between two seemingly similar concepts is clearly manifested: “listening” and “hearing.” We don't listen because we mistakenly think that listening means simply not speaking, but this is far from true. Listening is an active process that requires attention to what is being said. we're talking about. The listener, unlike the reader, cannot be distracted even by very a short time, because it seems to die the moment it leaves the speaker’s lips. Therefore, this skill must be trained in yourself in order to always be in shape.
Most of our reactions disturb the interlocutor and disrupt his train of thoughts, do not provide a correct understanding of the words and feelings of the interlocutor, create in him the feeling that he is not being heard, and consider his experiences funny and insignificant. These interferences invariably force the interlocutor to resort to defense, causing irritation and indignation (for example, when we judge everything we hear, interrupt the interlocutor without listening to the end, and are unable to restrain negative emotions). Listening is an act of will, which also includes higher mental processes. To hear, we must pay attention, and this is not easy work. Our listening style reflects our personality, character, interests and aspirations, position, gender and age.
By observing how 2-3 people are listening to each other while having a general conversation, you can be convinced that listening is an active process. This is also true in the sense that it requires mastery of certain techniques that significantly increase the effectiveness of communication.
Managing voluntary attention is an effective means of increasing the effectiveness of communications. At the same time, this is the most difficult thing, since human attention is constantly distracted. This is why many people listen poorly. Some techniques are obvious, such as the use of eye contact and certain gestures. Others are less obvious and are connected by our attitude towards the interlocutor, understanding, approval, empathy towards the speaker. We say: “I’m all ears” when we have a special desire to hear something interesting. Unconsciously, we take the appropriate posture: we turn our face towards the speaker, establish visual contact with him, in other words, we listen to the interlocutor. We take this pose unconsciously. But this technique should be used consciously, because the conscious ability to be attentive is an effective means of increasing the perception of the interlocutor’s speech. The listener's attention helps the speaker. Experimental studies public speaking and private conversations show that if listeners listen carefully, the speaker begins to speak more clearly, use gestures more often, in other words, “enter” the role.
Positive language of postures and gestures plays an important role in establishing contact and communication. Posture can express a desire or reluctance to listen and communicate.
A simple but effective method for improving listening effectiveness is non-reflective communication. It essentially consists of the ability to remain silent attentively. Such perception can be called passive conditionally. All you need is the simplest neutral motivating remarks or non-verbal means - repetition of the speaker’s last words, “mirror”, interjections (“uh-huh” - assent), nods, facial reactions, eye contact. Such techniques inspire the speaker and relieve tension arising from the fear of being misunderstood. Non-reflective listening is best suited for tense situations. This gives listeners emotional relief. Non-reflective listening is very useful, but it must be used skillfully.
To more accurately understand the interlocutor, reflective listening techniques are used. It is objective feedback to the speaker, used to control the accuracy of what is heard.
In this case Feedback is given to the listener in speech form through the following techniques: asking open and closed questions on the topic of conversation, paraphrasing the interlocutor’s words, allowing the same thought to be expressed in other words (paraphrase), summarizing and presenting intermediate conclusions.
So, to become a good communicator, you need to become a good listener. Very rarely are people protected from the subtle flattery of scrutiny.
Many people cannot produce good impression only because they don’t know how to listen carefully. They are so interested in what they themselves want to say that they forget to keep their ears open; moreover, when we are negative, we are unjustifiably critical, which complicates mutual understanding and active listening, and causes hostility from the speaker. You should also not give unsolicited advice unless asked for. Unsolicited advice is usually given by someone who will never help.
To acquire communication skills, it is necessary to observe the communication patterns of others (as a visual aid). Otherwise, this is learning to swim on the shore.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Communication is a specific exchange of information, as a result of which the process of transferring information of intellectual and emotional content from the sender to the recipient occurs.
2. There are four theoretical models of communication: psychoanalytic (S. Freud, K. Jung), existentialist (M. Buber, K. Jaspers), understanding (M. Weber), futurological (A. Toffler).
3. The installation of phatic communication traditionally imposes restrictions on complex and painful topics of everyday life and existence, a set of which is also meaningful in the cultural tradition (death, personal tragedies, etc.). If these topics cannot be avoided, then they are not initiated at the very beginning of communication and are not discussed deeply and extensively. The attitude of politeness and parity obliges the communicator to from time to time request a subject topic from the speech partner, i.e. transfer to him the right of initiative in the subject area
4. A simple but effective method for improving listening effectiveness is non-reflective communication. It essentially consists of the ability to remain silent attentively. Such perception can be called passive conditionally. All you need is the simplest neutral stimulating remarks or non-verbal means - repetition of the speaker’s last words, “mirror”, interjections, nods, facial reactions, eye contact.
CHAPTER 2. EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNICATION ATTITUDE AND CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH PERCEPTION IN ADOLESCENCE
2.1 Organization of the study
Having examined the theoretical basis of our topic, we will move on to the practical proof of our hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills.
The subject of our research is the analysis of attitudes in communication and the conditions for effective perception of adolescents’ speech.
The study was conducted on the basis of secondary school No. 33 in Minsk, 11th grade students, 46 teenagers aged 16-18 years.
At the first stage, we conducted: the “Your Communication Attitude” Test and the Communication Skills Assessment Test.
At the third stage, we statistically proved our hypothesis using the Mann-Whitney U test. The criterion is intended to assess differences between two samples in terms of the level of any quantitatively measured attribute. It allows you to identify differences between small samples when n1 n2 ≥ 3 or n1 = 2, n2 ≥ 5, and is more powerful than the Rosenbaum test.
2.2. Research methods and techniques
Test "Your communication attitude"
The test consists of 25 questions to which the respondent must answer “yes” or “no.”
After counting the points, we can observe signs of a negative attitude:
5. Negative personal experience communication with others. This component of the attitude shows to what extent you have been lucky in life with your closest circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities (in previous indicators, rather general situations were assessed).
Communication Skills Test
Instructions: Answers should be given to 10 questions, which are assessed: “almost always”, “in most cases”, “sometimes”, “rarely”, “almost never”.
2.3. Analysis and interpretation of results
Now let's summarize the results of our research. At the first stage, we conducted: the “Your Communication Attitude” Test and the Communication Skills Assessment Test.
At the second stage, we carried out qualitative and quantitative processing of the results.
The study was conducted on the basis high school No. 33 Minsk. Our sample included 46 adolescents aged 16-18 years.
In table 2.1. We will present the results of the “Your Communication Attitude” test.
Table 2.1.
Results of the “Your Communication Attitude” test
| Name, F. | Grumbling | ||||
| Roman A. | 3 | 30 | 4 | 5 | 12 |
| Irina V. | 7 | 33 | 2 | 5 | 11 |
| Tatiana V. | 9 | 16 | 5 | 6 | 5 |
| Elena V. | 3 | 36 | 2 | 4 | 10 |
| Dmitry V. | 17 | 19 | 4 | 6 | 10 |
| Zhanna G. | 6 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
| Vadim P. | 16 | 20 | 3 | 6 | 15 |
| Ilya T. | 6 | 36 | 1 | 6 | 6 |
| Anna V. | 20 | 17 | 3 | 6 | 11 |
| Boris T. | 7 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Luda K. | 20 | 12 | 3 | 5 | 15 |
| Natalya K. | 16 | 18 | 3 | 3 | 10 |
| Vitaly P. | 16 | 18 | 2 | 4 | 11 |
| Andrey L. | 5 | 40 | 1 | 3 | 11 |
| Dmitry L. | 6 | 16 | 5 | 2 | 10 |
| Artem K. | 3 | 44 | 2 | 4 | 12 |
| Valery P. | 10 | 12 | 5 | 4 | 14 |
| Larisa P. | 10 | 18 | 5 | 5 | 15 |
| Svetlana I. | 9 | 20 | 4 | 10 | 11 |
| Tatiana G. | 6 | 42 | 2 | 5 | 6 |
| Olga Sh. | 7 | 20 | 3 | 10 | 11 |
| Victoria F. | 6 | 21 | 3 | 9 | 16 |
| Marina T. | 5 | 39 | 2 | 5 | 7 |
| Daria I. | 9 | 23 | 5 | 9 | 12 |
| Natalya Ts. | 8 | 45 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Irina S. | 9 | 22 | 4 | 5 | 18 |
| Stanislav P. | 7 | 25 | 4 | 9 | 11 |
| Evgeniy D. | 6 | 36 | 2 | 4 | 12 |
| Igor S. | 7 | 21 | 3 | 2 | 19 |
| Andrey H. | 7 | 37 | 1 | 5 | 12 |
| Tahir M. | 3 | 12 | 4 | 5 | 20 |
| Sergey S. | 10 | 14 | 2 | 9 | 11 |
| Vladimir A. | 6 | 38 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Olga I. | 10 | 15 | 2 | 8 | 18 |
| Zaira F. | 11 | 16 | 4 | 9 | 11 |
| Natalya K. | 12 | 19 | 3 | 3 | 19 |
| Oleg D. | 6 | 39 | 2 | 4 | 10 |
| Yuri L. | 7 | 19 | 2 | 4 | 20 |
| Olga L. | 12 | 17 | 2 | 6 | 19 |
| Olga K. | 5 | 33 | 2 | 5 | 11 |
| Maria S. | 12 | 16 | 2 | 7 | 17 |
| Anna L. | 13 | 18 | 2 | 8 | 16 |
| Dmitry L. | 4 | 35 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Oksana L. | 6 | 37 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Konstantin V. | 10 | 17 | 1 | 6 | 20 |
| Valeria Ya. | 8 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 12 |
Thus, from this table 2.1. we see that 23 (50%) teenagers are friendly and responsive, as evidenced by low scores on the Veiled Cruelty scale. 7% (15%) of adolescents, on the contrary, in a disguised, muted or indirect form, personality judgments contain hostility, wariness in relationships with many partners, negative conclusions about people, and reluctance to respond to their problems. Such mindsets carry negative energy.
6 (13%) teenagers hide and do not mitigate their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them. And 18% (39%) of teenagers, straightforward individuals, do not hide or soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them.
11 (24%) teenagers do not make negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction. But the same number of teenagers, 11 (24%), on the contrary, draw negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction: after all, there are upsetting phenomena in life, which it would be naive not to notice. That is why a share of negativism in one’s attitude towards people is inevitable - one cannot perceive reality through rose-colored glasses.
6 (13%) teenagers are not inclined to make unfounded generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality. But 11 (24%), on the contrary, tend to make unfounded generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality.
5 (11%) adolescents did not have negative experiences in relationships with others. 16 (35%) unfortunately made mistakes about people. They were unlucky in life to have a close circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities.
For the communication skills assessment test, we obtained the following results, presented in Table 2.2.
We obtained the results by summing the points. So, the more points, the more developed the listening skill is. If the score is more than 62 points, then the listener is “above average.” Typically, the average student score is 55.
The results obtained make it possible to talk about the level of communication skills, the ability to listen and also to be understood by the interlocutor.
Table 2.2.
Results of the test to assess communication skills
| Name, F. | points | meaning. | Name, F. | points | meaning. |
| Roman A. | 55 | Wed | Natalya Ts. | 85 | high |
| Irina V. | 77 | high | Irina S. | 55 | Wed |
| Tatiana V. | 56 | Wed | Stanislav P. | 56 | Wed |
| Elena V. | 80 | high | Evgeniy D. | 60 | Wed |
| Dmitry V. | 59 | Wed | Igor S. | 54 | Wed |
| Zhanna G. | 83 | high | Andrey H. | 80 | high |
| Vadim P. | 60 | Wed | Tahir M. | 55 | Wed |
| Ilya T. | 88 | high | Sergey S. | 59 | Wed |
| Anna V. | 57 | Wed | Vladimir A. | 79 | high |
| Boris T. | 79 | high | Olga I. | 56 | Wed |
| Luda K. | 55 | Wed | Zaira F. | 57 | Wed |
| Natalya K. | 38 | low | Natalya K. | 38 | low |
| Vitaly P. | 37 | low | Oleg D. | 80 | high |
| Andrey L. | 56 | Wed | Yuri L. | 37 | low |
| Dmitry L. | 38 | low | Olga L. | 33 | low |
| Artem K. | 79 | high | Olga K. | 56 | Wed |
| Valery P. | 41 | Wed | Maria S. | 36 | low |
| Larisa P. | 55 | Wed | Anna L. | 55 | Wed |
| Svetlana I. | 50 | Wed | Dmitry L. | 86 | high |
| Tatiana G. | 80 | high | Oksana L. | 88 | high |
| Olga Sh. | 38 | low | Konstantin V. | 57 | Wed |
| Victoria F. | 55 | Wed | Valeria Ya. | 57 | Wed |
| Marina T. | 81 | high | Daria I. | 60 | Wed |
According to this Table 2.2. we can observe the following picture. Listening skills were highly developed in 14 (30.4%) adolescents. 24 (52%) teenagers have moderately developed listening skills; they are good conversationalists, but sometimes they refuse their partner full attention, and they have some shortcomings. They are critical of statements; they still lack some of the advantages of a good interlocutor. 8 (17%) teenagers do not have developed listening skills. They are bad communicators. They need to work on themselves and learn to listen.
Now let's move on to the third stage of our work. We will compare the findings to confirm our hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills.
To do this, we Table 2.3. Let's summarize the results of our research and use the Spearman rank correlation method to prove our hypothesis.
Table 2.3.
Summary table of study results
| Subject's name | Communication skills | Communication setting | ||||
| Veiled cruelty in relationships with people, in judgments about them. | Open cruelty in relationships with people, or straightforwardness | Justified negativism in judgments about people. | Grumbling | Negative personal experiences with others. | ||
| Roman A. | 55 | 3 | 30 | 4 | 5 | 12 |
| Irina V. | 77 | 7 | 33 | 2 | 5 | 11 |
| Tatiana V. | 56 | 9 | 16 | 5 | 6 | 5 |
| Elena V. | 80 | 3 | 36 | 2 | 4 | 10 |
| Dmitry V. | 59 | 17 | 19 | 4 | 6 | 10 |
| Zhanna G. | 83 | 6 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
| Vadim P. | 60 | 16 | 20 | 3 | 6 | 15 |
| Ilya T. | 88 | 6 | 36 | 1 | 6 | 6 |
| Anna V. | 57 | 20 | 17 | 3 | 6 | 11 |
| Boris T. | 79 | 7 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Luda K. | 55 | 20 | 12 | 3 | 5 | 15 |
| Natalya K. | 38 | 16 | 18 | 3 | 3 | 10 |
| Vitaly P. | 37 | 16 | 18 | 2 | 4 | 11 |
| Andrey L. | 56 | 5 | 40 | 1 | 3 | 11 |
| Dmitry L. | 38 | 6 | 16 | 5 | 2 | 10 |
| Artem K. | 79 | 3 | 44 | 2 | 4 | 12 |
| Valery P. | 41 | 10 | 12 | 5 | 4 | 14 |
| Larisa P. | 55 | 10 | 18 | 5 | 5 | 15 |
| Svetlana I. | 50 | 9 | 20 | 4 | 10 | 11 |
| Tatiana G. | 80 | 6 | 42 | 2 | 5 | 6 |
| Olga Sh. | 38 | 7 | 20 | 3 | 10 | 11 |
| Victoria F. | 55 | 6 | 21 | 3 | 9 | 16 |
| Marina T. | 81 | 5 | 39 | 2 | 5 | 7 |
| Daria I. | 60 | 9 | 23 | 5 | 9 | 12 |
| Natalya Ts. | 85 | 8 | 45 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Irina S. | 55 | 9 | 22 | 4 | 5 | 18 |
| Stanislav P. | 56 | 7 | 25 | 4 | 9 | 11 |
| Evgeniy D. | 60 | 6 | 36 | 2 | 4 | 12 |
| Igor S. | 54 | 7 | 21 | 3 | 2 | 19 |
| Andrey H. | 80 | 7 | 37 | 1 | 5 | 12 |
| Tahir M. | 55 | 3 | 12 | 4 | 5 | 20 |
| Sergey S. | 59 | 10 | 14 | 2 | 9 | 11 |
| Vladimir A. | 79 | 6 | 38 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Olga I. | 56 | 10 | 15 | 2 | 8 | 18 |
| Zaira F. | 57 | 11 | 16 | 4 | 9 | 11 |
| Natalya K. | 38 | 12 | 19 | 3 | 3 | 19 |
| Oleg D. | 80 | 6 | 39 | 2 | 4 | 10 |
| Yuri L. | 37 | 7 | 19 | 2 | 4 | 20 |
| Olga L. | 33 | 12 | 17 | 2 | 6 | 19 |
| Olga K. | 56 | 5 | 33 | 2 | 5 | 11 |
| Maria S. | 36 | 12 | 16 | 2 | 7 | 17 |
| Anna L. | 55 | 13 | 18 | 2 | 8 | 16 |
| Dmitry L. | 86 | 4 | 35 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Oksana L. | 88 | 6 | 37 | 1 | 4 | 11 |
| Konstantin V. | 57 | 10 | 17 | 1 | 6 | 20 |
| Valeria Ya. | 57 | 8 | 36 | 1 | 4 | 12 |
Let's use the STATISTIKA 6.0 program and identify the relationship.
Spearman Rank Order Correlations (new.sta)
MD pairwise deleted
N R t(N-2) p-level
COM_SMART & COM_SMART
COM_SMART & Z_GESTURE46-,430355-3,16249,002833
COM_SMART & FROM_GESTURE46.6788896.13319.000000
COM_SMART & NEGATIVE46-,534784-4,19811,000129
COM_SMART & BRUZZHAN46-,083596-,55646,580717
COM_SMART & NEGAT_OP46-,500003-3,82974,000403
As can be seen, on the open cruelty scale there is a high positive correlation at p≤0.01, while in other scales there is a high negative correlation.
Answer: The correlation between communication attitudes and the conditions for effective speech perception in adolescence is statistically significant (p<0,01) и является положительной.
Statistically, we have shown that certain attitudes in communication, in our case this is open cruelty in relationships with people, or straightforwardness, affect the ability to listen.
CONCLUSIONS:
The concept of “communication skills” includes not only assessing the interlocutor, determining his strengths and weaknesses, but also the ability to establish a friendly atmosphere, the ability to understand the problems of the interlocutor, etc.
We conducted a study and can say the following: subjects who know how to listen are characterized by open cruelty in their relationships with people. They are straightforward, do not hide or soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them: they draw sharp conclusions about them.
Thus, our hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills. In our case, straightforward individuals have highly developed listening skills, which was also proven by statistical methods.
CONCLUSION
To summarize our research, we can note the following.
Analysis of the literature showed that the essence of interpersonal communication lies in the interaction of person with person. The features of interpersonal interaction in any community are largely determined by how its members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they predominantly evoke in each other and what style of behavior they choose.
In relation to the ethical component of speech culture, the basic concept can be considered the national cultural and speech tradition, and the principle of description is the calculation of the basic ethical attitudes of speech communication with the subsequent description of the behavioral implementation of these attitudes in speech tactics and methods of speech use used by communicants in all or some situations .
The ethical line of verbal communication is ensured not only by special formulas of politeness and parallel nominations of different stylistic colors. Ethical balance is also achieved through speech behavioral operations in the field of all text categories (people communicate through texts) and the choice of speech strategies.
During the study, the initial hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills was confirmed both by qualitative and quantitative analysis, and by the statistical method of the Mann-Whitney U test.
The study made it possible to establish: teenagers who know how to listen have high scores on the scale of Open cruelty in relationships with people or straightforwardness. These are straightforward individuals who do not hide or soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them.
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ANNEX 1
Test "Your communication attitude"
You need to read each of the statements below and answer “yes” or “no”, expressing agreement or disagreement with them. We recommend using a sheet of paper on which the question number and your answer are recorded; then, as we continue our explanations, refer to your entry. Be careful and sincere:
1. My principle in relationships with people: trust, but verify
2. It is better to think badly about a person and make a mistake than the other way around (think well and make a mistake).
3. High-ranking officials, as a rule, are tricksters and cunning.
4. Modern youth have forgotten how to experience a deep feeling of love.
5. Over the years, I have become more secretive because I often had to pay for my gullibility.
6. In almost any team there is envy or bullying.
7. Most people lack compassion for others.
8. Most pupils and students in educational institutions try to get their hands on everything that is bad.
9. Most teenagers today are brought up worse than ever before.
10. I have often met cynical people in my life.
11. It happens like this: you do good to people, and then you regret it, because they pay with ingratitude.
12. Good must be done with fists.
13. With our generation, we can build a happy society in the near future.
14. You see stupid people around you more often than smart ones.
15. Most people with whom you have to do business pretend to be decent, but in essence they are different.
16. I am a very trusting person.
17. Those who believe that we should be more afraid of people rather than animals are right.
18. Mercy in our society will remain an illusion in the near future.
19. Our reality makes a person standard, faceless.
20. Good manners in my environment at school (university) is a rare quality
21. I almost always stop to give a passerby a token for a pay phone in exchange for money.
22 Most people will engage in immoral acts for the sake of personal interests.
23. People, as a rule, lack initiative in their studies.
24. Older people mostly show their anger to everyone.
25. Most people in a study group like to gossip about each other.
So, you have read the questions and recorded your answers. Now we move on to data processing and interpretation of the results.
SIGNS OF A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE
1. Veiled cruelty in relationships with people, in judgments about them. In a disguised, muted or indirect form, personality judgments contain hostility, wariness in relationships with many partners, negative conclusions about people, and reluctance to respond to their problems. Such mindsets carry negative energy. Of course, there are not many volunteers who would admit to them themselves. Most of us believe in our benevolence, responsiveness and other socially approved qualities, ignoring or smoothing out in our self-esteem that which contradicts the desired “I”. However, life shows something else.
The following answer options indicate veiled harshness in relationships with people (the number of points awarded for the corresponding option is indicated in parentheses):
1 - yes (3), 6-yes (3), 11 - yes (7), 16 - no (3), 21 - no (4).
You can score a maximum of 20 points.
2. Open cruelty in relationships with people or straightforwardness. The personality is straightforward, does not hide or soften his negative assessments and experiences about the majority of others: conclusions about them are sharp, unambiguous and made, perhaps forever.
You can judge open rigidity by the following questions from the above questionnaire:
2 - yes (9), 7 - yes (8), 12 - yes (10), 17 - yes (10), 22 - yes (8).
Low scores: 1-15; average: 16-30; high: 31-45.
The maximum you can score is 45 points.
3. Justified negativism in judgments about people. This is expressed in objectively determined negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction: after all, upsetting phenomena take place in life, which it would be naive not to notice. That is why a share of negativism in one’s attitude towards people is inevitable - one cannot perceive reality through rose-colored glasses.
Justified negativism is found in the following questions and answer options:
3 - yes (1), 8 - yes (1), 13 - no (1), 18 - yes (1), 23 - yes (1).
Low scores: 1; medium: 2-3; high: 4-5.
The maximum number of points is 5.
4. Grumping, that is, the tendency to make unfounded generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality.
The presence of such a component in a negative attitude is indicated by the following questions:
4 - yes (2), 9 - yes (2), 14 - yes (2), 19 - yes (2), 24 - yes (2).
Low scores: 1-3; average: 4-6; high: 7-10.
The maximum number of points is 10.
5. Negative personal experience of communicating with others. This component of the attitude shows to what extent you have been lucky in life with your closest circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities (in previous indicators, rather general situations were assessed).
Negative personal experiences of contacts are indicated by the following questions:
5 - yes (5), 10 - yes (5), 15 - yes (5), 20 - yes (4), 25 - yes (1).
Low scores: 1-7; average: 8-12; high: 13-20.
You can score a maximum of 20 points.
APPENDIX 2
Communication Skills Test
The concept of “communication skills” includes not only assessing the interlocutor, determining his strengths and weaknesses, but also the ability to establish a friendly atmosphere, the ability to understand the problems of the interlocutor, etc. This test is offered to check these qualities.
Instructions: Answers should be given to 10 questions, which are assessed:
1) “almost always” - 2 points;
2) “in most cases” - 3 points;
3) “sometimes” - 6 points;
4) “rarely” - 8 points;
5) “almost never” - 10 points.
A list of questions
1. Do you try to curtail the conversation in cases where the topic (or the interlocutor) is not interesting to you?
2. Do your communication partner’s manners irritate you?
3. Can another person's poor expression provoke you to be harsh or rude?
4. Do you avoid entering into conversation with an unknown or unfamiliar person?
5. Do you have a habit of interrupting the speaker?
6. Do you pretend to listen attentively, but you yourself are thinking about something completely different?
8. Do you change the topic of conversation if it touches on a topic that is unpleasant for you?
9. Do you correct a person if there are incorrectly pronounced words, names, or vulgarisms in his speech?
10. Do you have a condescending mentoring tone with a tinge of disdain and irony towards the person you are talking to?
Processing and interpretation
The higher the score, the more developed the listening skill. If the score is more than 62 points, then the listener is “above average.” Typically the average student score is 55
Effective
a) understanding communication - a non-judgmental response to how the partner sees (what he says) to himself, but also taking into account his behavior and conversation.
b) reflective communication - “I think for my partner and want to understand whether I understand him correctly.”
Quite typical for a psychologist.
Ineffective
a) belittling communication - infringement of the partner’s rights
b) aggressive communication - that communication during which attacks on the partner take place.
c) defensive-aggressive communication - aggressive communication caused by another partner. Response form (consequence, special case of aggressive communication). Any aggression is a sign of weakness, it is a form through which a person defends himself.
An intermediate form of effective and ineffective communication is directive communication (direct, pointing) - direct influence on another without belittling his merits, qualities, etc.
The most common ones in practice:
Most effective:
1) understanding communication
2) directive communication
Depends on 3 factors:
1) from goals;
2) on the level of development of relationships;
3) depending on the specific situation.
Types of understanding response
I. Simple phrases (actions) indicating the presence of contact: “I am completely attentive,” “I am listening to you carefully,” but not “I am listening.”
Behavioral acts:
1) presence of eye contact
2) nodding head
3) tilting the body towards the interlocutor.
Reducing the distance between partners + lowering the voice.
4) lack of protective hand positions (hand near the face, near the mouth, near the forehead, near the cheek).
II. Paraphrased content of thoughts, states, feelings, experiences openly expressed by the partner: “Did I understand correctly: so, so and so?”, “That’s what you said, etc.”
III. Finding out the hidden feelings of the interlocutor, which he does not declare, but about which he knows and worries.
Probing is the actualization in the mind of what the partner is hiding, but what is very important (consultations and investigative interaction).
IV. Summing up a summary (summary) after a certain stage of interaction.
V. Forms of toasting, sealing, etc.
The serving partner shows interest in the interlocutor and can also obtain more detailed information.
Difficulties in organizing understanding of communication:
1) difficulty establishing contact with a partner
2) failure of the organizer to establish contact
Manager: “Let’s get straight to the point” - wrong.
A psychological barrier arises. Psychologists are also guilty of this.
3) The problem of going beyond the boundaries of what is permitted: strangers (weak acquaintances) go “far” during a conversation and thereby destroy contact (interaction), therefore, there is a retreat tactic.
4) “reading” silence - assessing the silence of the interlocutor.
Characteristics of understanding communication
Starting points:
1) A person knows himself better than his communication partner; Therefore, first of all, you need to understand a person, and not influence him (first understand, and then influence).
2) Understanding communication presupposes a climate of trust.
3) Basic settings (social psychology) of understanding communication):
a) setting for a non-evaluative response. It manifests itself: I. in the desire to understand another through the eyes of another (his own eyes); II. in the desire to escape from one’s own frame of reference; III. in the desire to get away from extreme modal (+, -) assessments.
b) an attitude towards accepting the personality of another as he is. It manifests itself in the desire to respect another, regardless of who he is.
c) installation on the consistency of one’s own behavior (and psychological readiness for this), emotions, words and actions. The discrepancy between what is said and done is perceived very painfully by the partner and does not characterize understanding communication.
4) Rules of understanding communication:
I. Understanding communication involves listening to the other more and talking less (if one of the partners acts as the organizer of communication).
II. Follow your interlocutor's statements.
To influence another, you need to take the position of a follower.
III. Refrain from judgment and ask fewer distracting questions.
IV. React to personally significant information for your partner.
V. Strive to respond to the partner’s emotional state, and not just to the rational part.
The largest courses on the psychology of communication are taught to intelligence officers.
Silence can be assessed in different ways:
1) evidence that a person does not want to talk
2) silence is a sign of consent.
These types are difficult to distinguish: one is replaced by another.
5) Inability to read the non-verbal functions of the partner's form. Difficulty identifying them. Therefore, it is necessary to improve professionalism (training, etc.). This is where experience comes in: “What would that mean? in professional activities, but not only in the family!!!
In preparing this work, materials from the studentu website were used
The concept of communication and mutual understanding, their essence and meaning. Mutual understanding as the goal of communication. What helps and hinders communication. Establishing mutual understanding, problems in the process of communication and establishing mutual understanding, special problems. Various pictures of the world.
Gaze is one of the most powerful means of interaction and mutual understanding during face-to-face communication between people. Researchers of the language of facial expressions and gestures put forward several explanations for the strength and power that the human eye has.
The perceptual side of communication. Analysis of dialogue from the point of view of transactional analysis, determination of the ego state of the interlocutors and the form of the transaction. The culture of polemics. Signs of groups of non-verbal elements (openness, protection, suspicion and secrecy).
Essence, functions and specifics of business communication. Concept, typology and effects of perceptual barriers, their influence on the further course of negotiations. Description of the main psychological mechanisms of perception of a business partner: identification, reflection and empathy.
Business interaction in the buyer-seller system. Structure and types of interaction. The theory of causal expectations by G. Kelly. Barriers in business interaction. Features of the perception of the buyer and seller at various stages of the sale.
Psychology of social perception (Perceptual side of communication). Conceptual apparatus of PSP. Basic functions of the psychology of social perception.
The psychological basis of listening and its importance in a person’s successful career and business. Conditions and stages of a proper hearing, the need to prove it. The importance of reflective and non-reflective listening in establishing contact with the interlocutor.
Psychological characteristics of public speaking; preparation of a plan, theses and notes for a speech; expressiveness and conceptuality of speech. Psychological techniques for influencing a partner during business communication, rules for establishing contact.
The essence of nonverbal communication. Approaches to it: social-perceptual, communicative, paralinguistic, interactive. Types of nonverbal communication: voice, appearance, smile, gaze, movements, dance, gait, gestures, touching, hugs, facial expressions.
The meaning of the first impression effect, practical recommendations for forming a first impression.
It is known that behavior during family “squabbles” can be used to judge the underlying character traits of a partner. But it turns out that even the very desire or reluctance to enter into negotiations is a kind of test that helps spouses better understand each other.
Some people allow themselves to chat mindlessly for hours, while others use their phones to make big money. In business, the telephone serves as the second most important selling tool in addition to your main selling tool - your tongue.
People often say one thing and think something completely different. Therefore, it is important to learn to understand their true state. When transmitting information, only 7% is communicated in words, 30% is expressed by the sound of the voice, and more than 60% goes through other non-verbal channels.
Effective communication is manifested in achieving and maintaining psychological contact with a partner in order to stabilize interpersonal relationships at their optimal stage through achieving compatibility, agreement, and mutual adaptation.
Conditions for effective communication: contact, non-verbal communication, correct understanding of the interlocutor, response to the information of the interlocutor. Basic rules and techniques for increasing the effectiveness of communication: first impression, smile, compliment, listening skills.
Preparation and procedure for negotiations. Negotiation methods. Summing up the negotiations.
When communicating with other people, we form an impression of them not only by what they say, but also by how they say it - by facial expressions, intonation, and body movements. Having learned to understand this “language”, one can determine the real state of a person.
The structure of communication, methods of its implementation. Functions of imperative, manipulative and dialogic types of interpersonal communication. Features of primitive, business and secular communication. Identification of psychological mechanisms of perception of the interlocutor.
The importance of listening in business. Types of listening: reflective, non-reflective, empathic. Features and techniques of active and passive listening in business negotiations. Conditions that ensure psychologically correct listening to the interlocutor and partner
When preparing to negotiate or communicate with a partner, ask yourself the question: “How can my behavior, which depends entirely on me, influence my partner’s decision?”, and build your psychological communication tactics accordingly.
Characteristics of understanding communication: “Feelings do not deceive, but the judgment based on them deceives.” Goethe “A friend is a person with whom I can be sincere. In his presence I can think out loud." Emerson Let's ask ourselves the question: “Is it possible to establish good interpersonal or business relationships with a person and effectively influence him if we do not understand him or understand him poorly? The answer will probably be the same for everyone - no, this is not a promising matter. Indeed, “understand” means “study”, and without studying a communication partner it is impossible to develop a relationship with him or to exert an effective psychological influence on him. In principle, in any attempt to understand another person - his behavior, needs, motives, problems, areas of dissatisfaction - two approaches are possible: 1) try to understand a person from the position of his internal frame of reference (views, attitudes, values); 2) strive to understand it from our own point of view as an external observer, that is, to “explain” it based on our ideas and views on behavior and the situation. It is quite clear that the first approach is most preferable, since it is this understanding of the interlocutor that gives us the most reliable data about his personality. Of course, it is impossible to fully understand another person the way he imagines himself. It is also impossible to completely free yourself from your ideas that arise in the process of perceiving another person. Therefore, the question inevitably arises: “What are those techniques, skills, abilities and methods of communication that increase the effectiveness of understanding a person from his own positions? How should you listen and react in order to better study and understand his motivation, criteria for perceiving and assessing the world around him and self-esteem, current life situations and problems? And thereby more effectively develop interpersonal (or business) relationships with him?” 14 Most of us know people about whom others say: “He’s very difficult to talk to,” and vice versa: “He’s a great guy, he’s so easy to talk to.” We usually tend to associate such characteristics with personality traits, and in some cases this is quite justified. However, much more often than we are accustomed to think, the ability to understand another is related to how we do it: how we begin a discussion, how we listen, how we react to what he says and feels. The fact is that most of our habitual reactions in real communication situations complicate rather than contribute to understanding the interlocutor, and therefore complicate the development of relationships with him. For example, when the interlocutor does not understand us or does not agree with us, the usual reaction is to formulate our position differently, to reiterate it with even greater zeal, instead of trying to find out why the person does not understand us; sometimes we do even worse - we take a defensive-aggressive position. When a person begins to talk about his problem, especially if it is painful for him, our usual reaction is to immediately calm him down, say that “everything will be fine,” or hastily offer a solution to his problem from our own point of view, without even listening to him to the end without trying to understand his experiences. So, what are the skills, abilities and behaviors that we must have in order to be more oriented towards understanding other people? Attitudes of understanding-oriented communication. This approach has become widespread in the practice of teaching communication skills managers, diplomats, teachers, military personnel, journalists, police officers, since it has proven to be extremely effective in a variety of life situations when it is necessary to study people, understand them and manage them, and especially in the case of resolving interpersonal conflicts.Techniques of understanding communication are a set of such rules, skills and abilities to work with people that can be learned and acquired without any special prior psychological preparation. An understanding-oriented subject in the role of a student, when interacting with a partner, focuses his attention primarily on the internal frame of reference (evaluation criteria, values, motives, problems) of his partner, and not on his own. 15 Why is it important to focus on the frame of reference (thoughts and feelings) of the interlocutor, and not on your own? The importance of this position is that the partner knows himself, his needs, his life situation and problems better than us. Therefore, we need to help him develop his thoughts, and not “push” him according to our ideas. The fact is that when we are trying to understand the inner world of another person and study his values, beliefs, ideals, etc., our usual form of interaction is to guide our partner by asking questions, especially those that we imagine will “ probe deeper and which, in our opinion, he had not yet asked himself. Although these forms of interaction are necessary, they are usually useful only after we have received some information about how the other person himself imagines and experiences his situation or problem. In addition, open communication with the person we want to understand and study will only occur when we are able to create a trusting relationship (climate, atmosphere, psychological contact). A sense of trust is essential for a partner to self-disclose without fear that he will be assessed biasedly, and his frankness will be used to his detriment. And the conditions by which this climate is formed do not require any special psychological knowledge and methods, and do not require special intellectual sophistication. Rather, these are very specific feelings and attitudes that we must actually have, experience and openly express if we want to understand another person in the course of communication. And this person must perceive them for the meeting and conversation to be effective. As communication practice shows, the following conditions or attitudes are essential for creating a climate of trust (or the emergence and development of psychological contact with the interlocutor): an understanding, non-evaluative response to the thoughts, feelings and ideas of the partner; positive acceptance of the interlocutor as a person; consistency of one's own behavior when interacting with another person. An attitude is a person’s conscious readiness to react in a certain way in a specific situation in accordance with his needs, goals and objectives. 16 Let us consider these settings in more detail. Setting up an understanding response. What does it mean? Setting up an understanding, non-evaluative response presupposes a conscious desire to respond to the thoughts and states of the interlocutor in order to see them through his eyes and grasp the quality of these states (fear, doubt, anxiety, anger, etc.). Its formation is associated with a person’s ability to understand and predict the thoughts and emotional state of a communication partner, as if putting himself in his place. In psychology, this ability is called empathy. Therefore, in the literature on communication one can often find such concepts as “empathy”, “empathic communication”, which in content coincide with understanding communication. In this book, the term “empathy and related terms” (as well as the term “reflection”) will not be used in order to avoid complicating the terminology. An understanding response does not mean our agreement with what our partner says and feels, but is a manifestation of the desire to impartially understand his position and life situation without judging him. Such a response requires us to be able to temporarily get away from our own system of assessments and try to understand the experiences of the interlocutor, the state of his inner world. If he feels that his thoughts are understood and accepted correctly, he will begin to trust us and will be ready to further discuss issues that concern him, revealing his inner states. Unfortunately, most often we demonstrate understanding of another person from an external evaluative point of view, for example: “I understand you, now let me tell you what I think about this,” or even more specifically: “If I were in your place, then I would do this...,” or even stronger: “Let me remind you of what you missed, where you lost sight of reality,” etc. This evaluative type of understanding of another person usually causes defensive reactions, which prevent him from showing openness and developing his thoughts deeper, since subconsciously or quite consciously the interlocutor begins to fear hearing negative assessments, to feel that he is not understood and not accepted. Therefore, it is quite natural that a person, receiving evaluative reactions, will strive to avoid discussing those personal topics and problems in relation to which he experiences anxiety, uncertainty or other personally significant experiences. Since any person does not want to feel incompetent, vulnerable, etc., this reduces his self-esteem. Another reason why an evaluative response can cause defensive reactions in the interlocutor is that many people perceive these attempts as our invasion of their autonomy or as an attack on their right to have exactly the same thoughts, views, experience exactly the same emotional states and feelings. Of course, this does not mean that we should not express our own point of view, or that at a later stage in the development of a relationship (or conversation) we should not share our opinions with the interlocutor. It would be more correct to say that when we try to study and understand another person and help him to better understand his problems, then an understanding response contributes to the self-disclosure of the feelings and thoughts of the interlocutor, and an appreciative response hinders. The attitude of accepting the personality of the interlocutor is our readiness and desire to show unconditionally positive attention and respect to him when communicating with a person, regardless of his strengths and weaknesses. The more you are able to accept another person in the course of communication, accept what he says about himself and his problems, the more he is able to reveal himself - both good and bad, and therefore, the more freely and deeply he begins to discuss and analyze his thoughts, ideas and feelings. It is important to note that the attitude of accepting the personality of the interlocutor consists of a willingness to show genuine, rather than ostentatious, respect, something similar to the positive attitude and care of a parent towards his child, regardless of his specific behavior at the moment. The manifestation of such an attitude in psychological terms is a “climate of safety” for the interlocutor, allowing him to risk talking about those feelings and states that he may, although he is aware of, find it difficult to admit openly that he has and experiences them. In other words, the attitude of accepting the personality of the interlocutor is a willingness on our part to respectfully recognize his right to be as he is, regardless of our agreement or disagreement with him and regardless of how much his thoughts and feelings are connected with real facts (or otherwise - willingness to show goodwill 18 to the partner’s personality as a whole with all the positive and negative aspects). Focusing on the consistency of your behavior when interacting with your interlocutor in terms of content means the sincerity of your behavior in communicating with him. In practice, consistency of our own behavior occurs when what we openly express to our interlocutor in words and gestures is consistent with what we really internally feel and experience at the moment of conversation, and when we ourselves are aware of our internal emotional state. In a certain sense, this means that we, as it were, allow the interlocutor to “look into” ourselves, invite openness and an “exchange of trust.” If the interlocutor “feels” and perceives this kind of behavior, then he has a response—consistency of his behavior, and, as a consequence, trust in his partner. In real life, adherence to such an attitude may seem at first glance too radical and difficult to implement. And this is true to a certain extent. However, if we turn to our own life experience, many of us will probably remember those people with whom we were rarely open because of an intuitive feeling of distrust of them, because we did not know who they really were or what their actual position was. Inconsistency of behavior is especially obvious when a person tries to demonstrate interest and attention to the interlocutor, which he really does not feel or experience inside. For example, you come and contact one or another official with a personal problem that is important to you. Glancing at you briefly and without taking his eyes off the table, in a monotonously polite voice he invites you to sit down and repeats several times “I am listening to you attentively.” Despite what he says, his nonverbal behavior betrays his true feelings about your problem when he absentmindedly skims the papers on the table or struggles to hold back a yawn. Being completely consistent in your interactions with all people, all the time and in all situations is, of course, impossible and even undesirable. However, consistency of behavior is a very important condition in situations where partners seek to understand each other and want to develop relationships. So, the above guidelines are basic psychological principles that, in principle, contribute to understanding the interlocutor, developing and establishing contact with him, an atmosphere of trust and openness of communication; They cannot always be implemented and not in all situations; however, a conscious desire to apply them in personal and professional relationships, in working with people, with subordinates, in relationships in a team, with patients, clients, etc. helps develop such communication skills . Summarizing the main components of understanding behavior in communication, we can say: you need to sincerely strive to obtain additional information about the thoughts and feelings of your partner without any evaluation, recognize the right of your interlocutor to differ from your ideas, personal characteristics, tastes, preferences, etc.; and also coordinate your verbal behavior with the emotional states that arise during the interaction. For example, a disgruntled customer returns to the store and, showing a part of the purchased device, states: “I don’t understand how you can sell such rubbish. This thing fell off before I could use your purchase.” A defensive salesman might say, “Well, you see, I've sold hundreds of these devices. And you are the first to contact me with a complaint,” or: “I myself use such a device and I can tell you that it works great.” Of course, one can imagine that the buyer, having heard this, will be satisfied with the information provided and retreat. But most of us know from experience that this is unlikely to be the buyer's most likely action. He will almost certainly react more belligerently and say something like, “I don’t care how many of them you sold. It’s still a bunch of rubbish,” or: “I don’t need to tell you how great the device works for you. All I know is that it fell apart before I had time to prepare it for work.” If the seller continues the defensive line of dialogue, then an escalation of the confrontation to an open scandal is the most likely outcome. On the contrary, an understanding form of interaction (which involves accepting the partners’ differences without judgment, but does not mean obligatory agreement) should “return” to the interlocutor only what was heard from him, and also show concern and sympathy for his position. A statement like: “I see that you are upset. Tell us in more detail what happened” - this is both an understanding and neutral reaction. You don't make any assumption about a possible fault, but you don't put pressure on the buyer to change his mind. Once you have discussed the facts and the other party has been given the opportunity to express their point of view, you can take a stronger position and influence your partner on the issue. This line of behavior is more effective. To illustrate how understanding and protective forms of behavior influence the development of the situation, we present two options for dialogue between a child and a parent. 1) protective behavior of a parent: son: You know, dad, my teacher is just an idiot. father: Don’t you think it would be better if you didn’t think so, much less say that? son: I can’t think otherwise if the teacher is a fool. He's just being stupid. He's unfair. father: In the end, you must understand that there are 25 other students in the class besides you. I'm sure the teacher is thinking about this too. And it's unfair for you to talk about him like that. son: Why do you always defend the teacher? You never want to understand me. And I still think he's a fool, no matter what you tell me. Probable outcome: perhaps the son will jump out of the room in irritation and interrupt the educational conversation. It is possible that his father will take “disciplinary” measures against him. It is possible that they will simply stop the conversation, each remaining with their own opinion. In any case, the resolution of the disagreement is unlikely. 2) understanding behavior of the parent. son: You know, dad, my teacher is just a fool. father: I would like to understand why you think so. What's happening at school? son: You see, he constantly talks himself and never lets me speak. And others in the class don't like it. father: I understand, son. You would like to perform more often during class activities. son: Of course, speaking out during class is not such a big desire. And I don’t understand at all why the teacher talks a lot himself during classes there. father: What do you think the teacher wants to achieve by speaking to you? 21 son: I don’t know. I suspect that partly he just wants to show off in front of us. And, of course, he also wants us to know more. father: Okay. And what do you think about this? son: Well, I think I want to know more. But it’s so hard to get knowledge from him! Probable Outcome: Naturally, the world did not change as a result of this short conversation. The son may have been dissatisfied with his teacher. However, he did not distance himself from his father. They can calmly continue the conversation on this topic. They can begin to discuss other ways to effectively deal with the situation. A number of additional comments can be made regarding these provisions. The attitudes considered concern ourselves. If we seek to understand another person and develop psychological contact with him, then this other must perceive them as objectively existing. It is quite possible that the interlocutor: will not perceive the behavior we exhibit even when we are convinced that we are doing it in accordance with one or another attitude; or will regard our behavior as a lack, in his opinion, of interest in what he is saying; or will be annoyed because we do not express our opinions and assessments when he asks us to do so. A similar reaction from the interlocutor is quite likely. There is no need to be afraid of this. The process of mastering the skills of understanding communication in the initial period will not be smooth; at first, you will naturally experience certain difficulties; for some of you this is a new, previously unconscious way of maintaining relationships. Therefore, your first attempts at communication, based on the content side of these attitudes, will be felt artificial or perceived by other people as a lack of openness in your behavior. Of course, such human qualities as determination, resourcefulness, criticality, moderate aggressiveness, etc. are positive. But, at the same time, the ability to listen and understand other people is an essential quality both on a purely personal level and on a social level. In conclusion, we emphasize once again that the techniques of an understanding, non-judgmental response to the thoughts and feelings of a co-22 interlocutor contribute to a hidden psychological impact on him, as a result of which he subconsciously begins to feel increased attention to himself, sympathetic understanding and acceptance of his concerns and problems. He develops a subjective feeling of security, in which he can more openly, without fear of being negatively evaluated, express those thoughts and feelings that concern him, and unconsciously begins to see us as an interesting and attentive interlocutor.
