home Success stories One of the criteria for social stratification is. Social stratification: concept, criteria and types

One of the criteria for social stratification is. Social stratification: concept, criteria and types

The term "stratification" comes from "stratum" (lat.) - layer and "facio" (lat.) - I do. Stratification- this is not just differentiation, enumeration of differences between individual layers, strata in society. The task of stratification is to identify the vertical sequence of the positions of social strata, their hierarchy.

The theory of social stratification is one of the most developed parts of social theory. Its foundations were laid by M. Weber, K. Marx, P. Sorokin, T. Parsons. The basis of the stratification structure is the natural and social inequality of people.

In the English Dictionary social sciences» Stratification is understood as a process, as a result of which families and individuals are not equal to each other and are grouped into hierarchically arranged strata with different prestige, property and power.

All criteria of social stratification must comply with the following principles (according to M. Weber and E. Durkheim):

1) all social strata of a given society should be studied without exception;
2) it is necessary to measure and compare groups using the same criteria;
3) criteria should be no less than required for a sufficiently complete description of each layer.

P. Sorokin defined social stratification as “the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank. It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its basis and essence lies in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, the presence or absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community” ?5?. Stratification model of society ( pyramid divided into strata) was borrowed by P. Sorokin from geology. However, unlike the structure of rocks, in society:

the lower layers are always much wider than the upper ones,

the number of layers is not strictly defined: it all depends on how many stratification criteria are taken into account,

the thickness of the layer is not constant, since people can move from one layer to another (processes of social mobility).

There are two main ways to stratify a society, depending on the number of underlying features:

1. One-dimensional stratification. It is based on one-dimensional strata, i.e., strata distinguished by any one social sign. This approach assumes the stratification of society according to the following groups of features:
1) gender and age;
2) national language;
3) professional;
4) educational;
5) religious;
6) by settlement.

Some researchers base the classification on other features.

2. Multidimensional stratification. At the same time, stratification is based on several features.

The second method of stratification includes the division of society into:

1) socio-territorial communities (population of a city, village, region);
2) ethnic communities (tribe, nationality, nation);
3) the system of slavery (economic, social and legal form securing people, bordering on complete lack of rights and an extreme degree of inequality);
4) castes ( social groups membership in which a person owes birth);
5) estates (social groups supported by established customs or laws, and in which rights and obligations are inherited);
6) social classes.

The modern English researcher E. Giddens offers a number of differences between the class system and the slave, caste and class system:

1. Classes are not formed on the basis of religious beliefs. Belonging to a class is not determined by adherence to certain customs, traditions and mores. The class system is more fluid than other types of stratification. Labor is the basis of class division.
2. A person's belonging to a particular class is often achieved by himself, and is not given from birth.
3. Economic feature is the basis for assigning an individual to a particular class.
4. In other types of social structure, inequality expresses mainly the personal dependence of one individual on another. The class structure of society, on the contrary, is characterized by the personal independence of individuals from each other?6?.

In sociology, there are several main approaches to the stratification structure.

Each this person, according to Parsons, actually enjoys the respect associated with a graduated hierarchy, its relative respect in an ordered total system of differentiated evaluation is prestige, which means comparative evaluation. In turn, differentiated prestige is the basis of stratification.

Davies and Moore rightly believe that some positions in the social system are functionally more important than others and require special skills for their realization. However, the number of individuals with these abilities is limited. Therefore, these positions should be given stimulus in the form of differentiated access to society's limited and desired rewards, in order to force talented individuals to make sacrifices and acquire necessary training. These differentiated rewards lead to differentiation in stratum prestige and hence to social stratification.

Modern studies of social stratification use the theoretical basis of the above approaches, and also proceed from the principle of multidimensionality of stratified measurements. The foundations of this approach were already laid in the works of M. Weber, who studied the interdependence between various stratification criteria. Weber believed that class affiliation is determined not only by the nature of the relationship to the means of production, but also by economic differences that are not directly related to property: for example, qualifications, skills, education.

Other criteria for stratification, according to Weber, are status and party affiliation (groups of individuals with a common origin, goals, interests).

The American sociologist B. Barber, based on the multidimensionality and interconnectedness of measurements, proposed the following concept of the structure of social stratification.

1. The prestige of the profession, occupation, position, assessed by the functional contribution to social development.
2. Power, seen as an institutionally defined right to influence the actions of other people, contrary to or regardless of their wishes.
3. Income or wealth. Different occupational statuses in society have different capacities for earning income and for accumulating wealth in the form of capital; there are various chances of getting wealth as an inheritance.
4. Education. Unequal access to education predetermines the ability of individuals to occupy one position or another in society.
5. Religious or ritual purity. In some societies, belonging to a particular religion is crucial.
6. Ranking by kindred and ethnic groups.

Thus, income, power, prestige and education determine the total socio-economic status, that is, the position and place of a person in society.

In modern sociological science, various approaches to the analysis of social stratification coexist (the activity approach, the concept of "emergence" of the emergence of unexpected criteria of social inequality, etc.).

From the point of view of the activity-activist approach to the analysis of social inequalities (T.I. Zaslavskaya), the social hierarchy of modern Russian society can be represented as follows?7?:

elite - ruling political and economic - up to 0.5%;

the top layer - large and medium-sized entrepreneurs, directors of large and medium-sized privatized enterprises, other sub-elite groups - 6.5%;

the middle layer - representatives of small businesses, qualified professionals, middle management, officers - 20%;

the base layer - ordinary specialists, assistants to specialists, workers, peasants, trade and service workers - 60%;

the bottom layer - low-skilled and unskilled workers, temporarily unemployed - 7%;

social bottom - up to 5%.

Social stratification makes it possible to represent society not as a chaotic heap of social statuses, but as a complex but clear structure of status positions that are in certain dependencies.

To assign statuses to one or another level of the hierarchy, appropriate grounds or criteria must be defined.

Criteria of social stratification - indicators that allow you to determine the position of individuals and social groups on a hierarchical scale of social status.

The question of the foundations of social stratification in the history of sociological thought was solved ambiguously. So, K. Marx believed that these should be economic indicators which, in his opinion, determine the state of all other relations in society. Fact a person's possession of property and the level of his income he considered as the basis of social stratification. Marx came to the conclusion that the history of all societies, with the exception of the primitive and the future communist, is the history of classes and class struggle, as a result of which society rises to a higher level of development. Slaves and slave-owners, feudal lords and peasants, workers and bourgeoisie are irreconcilable in their social position.

M. Weber believed that Marx simplified the picture of stratification, and an accurate picture of inequality can be obtained using multidimensional criteria: along with economic situation needs to be considered prestige of a profession or occupation, as well as measure of power possessed by an individual or his social group. Unlike Marx, he associated the concept of class only with capitalist society, where the market is the most important regulator of relations. In the market, people occupy different positions, i.e., they are in a different “class situation”. Property and lack of property are the basic categories of all class situations. The totality of people who are in the same class situation constitutes, according to Weber, a social class. Those who do not own property and can offer only services on the market are divided according to the types of services. Property owners can be differentiated according to what they own.

This approach was developed by P. Sorokin, who also believed that the position of an individual in the social space can be more accurately described not by a single, but by several indicators: economic (income), political (power, prestige) and professional (status).

In the XX century. many other models of stratification have been created. Thus, the American sociologist B. Barber proposed a whole range of features for the stratification of society: the prestige of the profession; power and might; income and wealth; education; religious or ritual purity; the position of relatives; ethnicity.

The creators of the theory of post-industrial society, the French sociologist A. Touraine and the American D. Bell, believe that in modern society social differentiation occurs not in relation to property, prestige, power, ethnicity, but in terms of access to information. The dominant position is occupied by people who own strategic and new information, as well as the means of controlling it.

In modern sociological science, the following indicators act as the basis of social stratification: income, power, education, prestige. The first three indicators are specific units dimensions: income is measured by money, power by the number of people to whom it applies, education by the number of years of study and the status of the educational institution. Prestige is determined on the basis of public opinion polls and self-assessments of individuals.

These indicators determine the overall socio-economic status, i.e., the position of an individual (social group) in society. Let us consider in more detail the bases of stratification.

Income- this is economic characteristic the position of the individual. It is expressed as the amount of cash receipts for a certain period of time. Sources of income can be different income - salary, scholarships, pensions, allowances, fees, cash bonuses, bank charges on deposits. Members of the middle and lower classes tend to spend their income on sustenance. But if the amount of income is significant, it can be accumulated and transferred to expensive movable and immovable property (car, yacht, helicopter, securities, precious items, paintings, rare things), which will make wealth. The main asset of the upper class is not income, but wealth. It allows a person not to work for the sake of a salary, it can be inherited. If the life situation changes and a person loses high incomes, he will have to turn wealth back into money. Therefore, high income does not always mean great wealth, and vice versa.

The uneven distribution of income and wealth in society means economic inequality. Poor and rich people have different life chances. Having a lot of money empowers a person, allows him to eat better, take care of his health, live in more comfortable conditions, pay for education in a prestigious educational institution, etc.

Power- is the ability of individuals or groups to impose their will on others, regardless of their desire. Power is measured by the number of people who are subject to this influence. The power of the head of the department extends to several people, the chief engineer of the enterprise - to several hundred people, the minister - to several thousand, and the President of Russia - to all its citizens. His status has the highest rank in social stratification. Power in modern society is fixed by law and tradition, surrounded by privileges and wide access to social benefits. Power allows you to control key resources. To master them means to gain dominion over people. People who have power or enjoy recognition, authority for their economic, political, spiritual activities, constitute the elite of society, its highest social stratum.

Education- the basis of general cultural and professional training in modern society, one of the characteristics of the achieved status. As society develops, knowledge becomes more specialized and deep, so modern man spends much more time on education than even a few hundred years ago. On average, it takes 20 years to train a specialist (for example, an engineer) in modern society, given that before entering a university, he must receive a secondary education. The level of education is determined not only by the number of years of study, but also by the rank educational institutions who confirmed in the manner prescribed by law (with a diploma or certificate) that an individual has received education: secondary school, college, university.

Prestige- the respect with which public opinion relates to a particular profession, position, occupation or individual for his personal qualities. The formation of the professional and job structure of society is an important function of social institutions. The nomenclature of professions eloquently testifies to the nature of society (agrarian, industrial, informational) and the stage of its development. It is changeable, just as the prestige of various professions is changeable.

For example, in medieval society, the profession of a priest was perhaps the most prestigious, which cannot be said about modern society. In the 30s.

20th century millions of boys dreamed of becoming pilots. Everyone had the names of V.P. Chkalov, M.V. Vodopyanov, N.P. Kamanin on their lips. In the postwar years, and especially after the development of scientific and technological revolution in the middle of the 20th century. the prestige of the engineering profession has grown in society, and computerization of the 90s. updated the professions of computer specialists and programmers.

The most prestigious at all times were considered professions associated with access to valuable resources for a given society - money, scarce goods, power or knowledge, information. A person, as a rule, seeks to emphasize his own high prestige with appropriate status symbols: clothes, accessories, an expensive car brand, awards.

In sociological science, there is such a thing as a ladder of professional prestige. This is a scheme that reflects the degree of public respect that goes to a particular profession. The basis for its construction is the study of public opinion. Such polls are especially popular in the USA. An example of a scale built by American researchers based on a generalization of the results of public opinion polls conducted in 1949-1982 is shown in Table. 6. (The highest score awarded to the profession is 100, the lowest is 1.)

Table 6

Scale of professional prestige

Type of occupation	Points	Type of occupation	Points
		Typist
college professor		Plumber


		Watchmaker
		Stewardess

		Baker
		Shoemaker
civil engineer		Bulldozer
Sociologist		Truck driver
Political scientist
Mathematician		Salesman
School teacher
Accountant		Housekeeper
Librarian		railway worker
Specialist, on computers

There is a part of the social system that acts as a set of the most stable elements and their connections that ensure the functioning and reproduction of the system. It expresses the objective division of society into classes, layers, pointing to the different position of people in relation to each other. social structure forms the framework of the social system and largely determines the stability of society and its qualitative characteristics as a social organism.

The concept of stratification (from lat. stratum- layer, layer) denotes the stratification of society, differences in the social status of its members. social stratificationis a system of social inequality, consisting of hierarchically arranged social strata (strata). All people belonging to a particular stratum occupy approximately the same position and have common status features.

Different sociologists explain the causes of social inequality and, consequently, social stratification in different ways. Yes, according to Marxist school of sociology, inequality is based on property relations, the nature, degree and form of ownership of the means of production. According to the functionalists (K. Davis, W. Moore), the distribution of individuals according to social strata depends on the importance of their professional activities and contribution which they contribute by their labor to the achievement of the goals of society. Supporters exchange theories(J. Homans) believe that inequality in society arises due to unequal exchange of results of human activity.

A number of classic sociologists considered the problem of stratification more broadly. For example, M. Weber, in addition to economic (attitude to property and level of income), proposed in addition such criteria as social prestige(inherited and acquired status) and belonging to certain political circles, hence - power, authority and influence.

One of creators P. Sorokin identified three types of stratification structures:

economic(according to the criteria of income and wealth);
political(according to the criteria of influence and power);
professional(according to the criteria of mastery, professional skills, successful performance social roles).

Founder structural functionalism T. Parsons proposed three groups of differentiating features:

quality characteristics people they possess from birth (ethnicity, family ties, gender and age characteristics, personal qualities and abilities);
role characteristics determined by a set of roles performed by an individual in society (education, position, different kinds professional and labor activity);
characteristics due to the possession of material and spiritual values (wealth, property, privileges, the ability to influence and manage other people, etc.).

In modern sociology, it is customary to distinguish the following main social stratification criteria:

income - the amount of cash receipts for a certain period (month, year);
wealth - accumulated income, i.e. the amount of cash or embodied money (in the second case, they act in the form of movable or immovable property);
power - the ability and ability to exercise one's will, to exert a decisive influence on the activities of other people through various means (authority, law, violence, etc.). Power is measured by the number of people it extends to;
education - a set of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process. The level of education is measured by the number of years of education;
prestige- public assessment of the attractiveness, significance of a particular profession, position, a certain type of occupation.

Despite the variety of different models of social stratification that currently exist in sociology, most scientists distinguish three main classes: high, middle and low. At the same time, the share of the upper class in industrialized societies is approximately 5-7%; middle - 60-80% and lower - 13-35%.

In a number of cases, sociologists make a certain division within each class. Thus, the American sociologist W.L. Warner(1898-1970) identified six classes in his famous Yankee City study:

top-top class(representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties with significant resources of power, wealth and prestige);
lower-higher class("new rich" - bankers, politicians who do not have a noble origin and did not have time to create powerful role-playing clans);
higher- middle class (successful businessmen, lawyers, entrepreneurs, scientists, managers, doctors, engineers, journalists, cultural and art figures);
lower-middle class (wage-earners- engineers, clerks, secretaries, employees and other categories, which are commonly called "white collars");
upper-lower class(workers employed primarily physical labor);
lower-lower class(poor, unemployed, homeless, foreign workers, declassed elements).

There are other schemes of social stratification. But they all boil down to the following: non-basic classes arise by adding strata and layers that are inside one of the main classes - rich, wealthy and poor.

Thus, social stratification is based on natural and social inequality between people, which is manifested in their social life and is hierarchical. It is sustainably maintained and regulated by various social institutions, is constantly reproduced and modified, which is an important condition for the functioning and development of any society.

Inequality – feature any society, when some individuals, groups or layers have great opportunities, or resources (financial, power, etc.) than others.

To describe the system of inequality in sociology, the concept is used "social stratification" . The very word "stratification" borrowed from geology, where "stratum" means geological formation. This concept quite accurately conveys the content of social differentiation, when social groups line up in social space in a hierarchically organized, vertically sequential row according to some measuring criterion.

In Western sociology, there are several concepts of stratification. West German sociologist R. Dahrendorf suggested that social stratification should be based on political concept "authority" , which, in his opinion, most accurately characterizes the relations of power and the struggle between social groups for power. Based on this approach R. Dahrendorf represented the structure of society, consisting of managers and managed. He, in turn, divided the former into managing owners and managing non-owners, or bureaucratic managers. The second he also divided into two subgroups: the highest, or labor aristocracy, and the lowest - low-skilled workers. Between these two main groups he placed the so-called "new middle class" .

American sociologist L. Warner identified as defining signs of stratification four parameters :

The prestige of the profession;

Education;

Ethnicity.

Thus he determined six main classes :

top-top class included rich people. But the main criterion for their selection was "noble origin";

AT lower upper class also included people of high income, but they did not come from aristocratic families. Many of them had only recently become rich, boasted of it, and sought to flaunt their luxurious clothes, jewelry, and fancy cars;

upper middle class consisted of highly educated people engaged in intellectual work, and business people, lawyers, capital owners;

lower middle class represented mainly by clerks and other "white-collar workers" (secretaries, bank tellers, clerks);

upper class lower class made up of "blue collar" - factory workers and other manual laborers;

Finally, underclass included the poorest and most outcast members of society.

Another American sociologist B. Barber stratified on six indicators :

Prestige, profession, power and might;

Income level;

The level of education;

The degree of religiosity;

The position of relatives;

Ethnicity.

French sociologist A. Touraine believed that all these criteria were already outdated, and proposed to define groups on access to information. The dominant position, in his opinion, is occupied by those people who have access to the greatest amount of information.

P. Sorokin singled out three criteria stratification:

Income level (rich and poor);

Political status (those with and without power);

Professional roles (teachers, engineers, doctors, etc.).

T. Parsons supplemented these signs with new ones criteria :

quality characteristics inherent in people from birth (nationality, gender, family ties);

role characteristics (position, level of knowledge; professional training, etc.);

"characteristics of possession" (possession of property, material and spiritual values, privileges, etc.).

In modern post-industrial society, it is customary to single out four main stratification variables :

Income level;

Attitude to power;

The prestige of the profession;

The level of education.

Income- the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain period of time (month, year). Income is the amount of money received in the form of wages, pensions, allowances, alimony, fees, deductions from profits. Income is measured in rubles or dollars that an individual receives (individual income) or family (family income). Incomes are most often spent on maintaining life, but if they are very high, they accumulate and turn into wealth.

Wealth- accumulated income, that is, the amount of cash or embodied money. In the second case, they are called movable (car, yacht, securities, etc.) and immovable (house, works of art, treasures) property. Usually wealth is inherited , which can be received by both working and non-working heirs, and only working ones can receive income. The main wealth of the upper class is not income, but accumulated property. The salary share is small. For the middle and lower classes, the main source of subsistence is income, since in the first case, if there is wealth, it is insignificant, and in the second it is not at all. Wealth allows you not to work, and its absence forces you to work for the sake of wages.

Wealth and income are unevenly distributed and signify economic inequality. Sociologists interpret it as an indication that different groups people have unequal life chances. They buy different quantities and different qualities of food, clothing, housing, etc. But in addition to the obvious economic advantages, the wealthy have hidden privileges. The poor have shorter lives (even if they enjoy all the benefits of medicine), less educated children (even if they go to the same public schools), and so on.

Education measured by the number of years of study in a public or private school or university.

Power measured by the number of people affected by the decision. The essence of power is the ability to impose one's will against the will of others. In a complex society, power is institutionalized , that is, protected by laws and tradition, surrounded by privileges and wide access to social benefits, allows you to make decisions that are vital for society, including laws that, as a rule, are beneficial to the upper class. In all societies, people who hold some form of power—political, economic, or religious—make up an institutionalized elite. . It determines the domestic and foreign policy of the state, directing it in a direction that is beneficial to itself, which other classes are deprived of.

Three scales of stratification - income, education and power - have completely objective units of measurement: dollars, years, people. Prestige stands outside this series, since it is a subjective indicator. Prestige - respect, as in public opinion use one or another profession, position, occupation.

The generalization of these criteria makes it possible to represent the process of social stratification as a multifaceted stratification of people and groups in society on the grounds of owning (or not owning) property, power, certain levels of education and training, ethnic characteristics, gender and age characteristics, sociocultural criteria, political positions, social statuses. and roles.

Can be distinguished nine types of historical stratification systems , which can be used to describe any social organism, namely:

Physico-genetic,

slaveholding,

caste,

estate,

Etacratic

Socio-professional,

class,

cultural and symbolic,

Cultural and normative.

All nine types of stratification systems are nothing more than " ideal types". Any real society is their complex mixture, combination. In reality, stratification types are intertwined and complement each other.

basis of the first type physical-genetic stratification system – lies the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or group is determined by gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities- strength, beauty, dexterity. Accordingly, the weaker, those with physical disabilities are considered defective and occupy a humbled social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or its actual use, and then fixed in customs and rituals. This "natural" stratification system dominated the primitive community, but continues to be reproduced to this day. It is especially strong in communities struggling for physical survival or expansion of their living space.

The second stratification system - slaveholding – also based on direct violence. But inequality here is determined not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. Certain social groups have been completely deprived of these rights and, moreover, along with things, have been turned into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and thus fixed in generations. Examples of slaveholding systems are quite varied. This is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens, and servility in Russia during the Russkaya Pravda, and plantation slavery in the south of the North American United States before the civil war of 1861-1865, this is, finally, the work of prisoners of war and deported persons on German private farms during World War II.

The third type of stratification system - caste . It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are fixed religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the functions of each caste in the system of division of labor. There is a clear list of occupations that members of a particular caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural. Since the position in the caste system is inherited, the possibilities of social mobility are extremely limited here. And the stronger caste is expressed, the more closed this society turns out to be. India is rightfully considered a classic example of a society with a dominance of the caste system (this system was legally abolished here only in 1950). There were 4 main castes in India : Brahmins (priests) kshatriyas (warriors) vaishyas (merchants) sudras (workers and peasants) and about 5 thousand minor castes and podcast . The untouchables, who were not part of the castes and occupied the lowest social position, stood out in particular. Today, although in a smoother form, the caste system is reproduced not only in India, but, for example, in the clan system of the Central Asian states.

The fourth type is represented estate stratification system . In this system, groups differ in legal rights, which, in turn, are strictly related to their duties and are directly dependent on these duties. Moreover, the latter imply obligations to the state, enshrined in law. Some classes are obliged to carry out military or bureaucratic service, others - "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties. Examples of developed estate systems are feudal Western European societies or feudal Russia. So, class division is, first of all, a legal, and not an ethnic-religious or economic division. It is also important that belonging to a class is inherited, contributing to the relative closeness of this system.

Some similarity with the estate system is observed in representing the fifth type of etacratic system (from French and Greek - " government"). In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities of mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to derive from their positions of power. The degree of material well-being, the style of life of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel, are connected here with the formal ranks that these groups occupy in the respective power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a secondary role. The scale and nature of differentiation (volumes of power) in the etacratic system are under the control of the state bureaucracy. At the same time, hierarchies can be fixed formally legally - through bureaucratic tables of ranks, military regulations, assignment of categories government agencies, - and may remain outside the sphere of state legislation (a good example is the system of the Soviet party nomenklatura, the principles of which are not spelled out in any laws). The formal freedom of members of society (with the exception of dependence on the state), the absence of automatic inheritance of positions of power also distinguish etacratic system from the class system. Etacratic system is found with greater strength the more authoritarian character the government takes.

In line with socio-professional stratification system groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. They play a special role qualification requirements required for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, skills and abilities. Approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of certificates (diplomas, grades, licenses, patents), fixing the level of qualification and ability to perform certain types of activities. The validity of qualification certificates is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history. The socio-professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor. This is the system of craft workshops of a medieval city and the rank grid in modern state industry, the system of certificates and diplomas of education received, the system of scientific degrees and titles that open the way to more prestigious jobs.

The seventh type is represented by the most popular class system . The class approach is often opposed to the stratification approach. But class division is only a particular case of social stratification. In the socio-economic interpretation, classes represent social groups of politically and legally free citizens. The differences between these groups lie in the nature and extent of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, as well as in the level of income received and personal material well-being. Unlike many previous types, belonging to classes - bourgeois, proletarians, independent farmers, etc. - is not regulated by the highest authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited (property and capital are transferred, but not the status itself). In its purest form, the class system does not contain any internal formal partitions at all (economic prosperity automatically transfers you to a higher group).

Another stratification system can be conditionally called cultural and symbolic . Differentiation arises here from differences in access to socially significant information, unequal opportunities to filter and interpret this information, and the ability to be a bearer of sacred knowledge (mystical or scientific). In ancient times, this role was assigned to priests, magicians and shamans, in the Middle Ages - to church ministers, interpreters of sacred texts, who make up the bulk of the literate population, in modern times - to scientists, technocrats and party ideologists. Claims to communicate with divine powers, to possess the truth, to express public interest existed always and everywhere. And a higher position in this respect is occupied by those who have best opportunities manipulating the consciousness and actions of other members of society, who can prove their rights to true understanding better than others, owns the best symbolic capital.

Finally, the last, ninth type of stratification system should be called cultural and normative . Here, differentiation is built on differences in respect and prestige that arise from a comparison of the way of life and the norms of behavior followed by a given person or group. Attitudes towards physical and mental labor, consumer tastes and habits, manners of communication and etiquette, a special language (professional terminology, local dialect, criminal jargon) - all this forms the basis of social division. Moreover, there is not only a distinction between “us” and “them”, but also a ranking of groups (“noble - ignoble”, “decent - dishonorable”, “elite - ordinary people - bottom”).

The concept of stratification (from Latin stratum - layer, layer) denotes the stratification of society, differences in the social status of its members. Social stratification is a system of social inequality, consisting of hierarchically arranged social strata (strata). All people belonging to a particular stratum occupy approximately the same position and have common status features.

Stratification criteria

Different sociologists explain the causes of social inequality and, consequently, social stratification in different ways. Thus, according to the Marxist school of sociology, inequality is based on property relations, the nature, degree and form of ownership of the means of production. According to the functionalists (K. Davis, W. Moore), the distribution of individuals by social strata depends on the importance of their professional activities and the contribution that they make with their work to achieve the goals of society. Proponents of the exchange theory (J. Homans) believe that inequality in society arises due to the unequal exchange of the results of human activity.

A number of classic sociologists considered the problem of stratification more broadly. For example, M. Weber, in addition to economic (attitude to property and income level), additionally proposed such criteria as social prestige (inherited and acquired status) and belonging to certain political circles, hence power, authority and influence.

One of the creators of the theory of stratification, P. Sorokin, identified three types of stratification structures:

§ economic (according to the criteria of income and wealth);

§ political (according to the criteria of influence and power);

§ professional (according to the criteria of mastery, professional skills, successful performance of social roles).

The founder of structural functionalism T. Parsons proposed three groups of differentiating features:

§ qualitative characteristics of people that they possess from birth (ethnicity, family ties, gender and age characteristics, personal qualities and abilities);

§ role characteristics determined by a set of roles performed by an individual in society (education, position, various types of professional and labor activity);

§ characteristics due to the possession of material and spiritual values (wealth, property, privileges, the ability to influence and manage other people, etc.).

In modern sociology, it is customary to distinguish the following main criteria for social stratification:

§ income - the amount of cash receipts for a certain period (month, year);

§ wealth - accumulated income, i.e. the amount of cash or embodied money (in the second case, they act in the form of movable or immovable property);

§ power - the ability and ability to exercise one's will, to exert a decisive influence on the activities of other people through various means (authority, law, violence, etc.). Power is measured by the number of people it extends to;

§ education - a set of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process. The level of education is measured by the number of years of education;

§ prestige - a public assessment of the attractiveness, significance of a particular profession, position, a certain type of occupation.

Despite the variety of different models of social stratification currently existing in sociology, most scientists distinguish three main classes: the highest, the middle and the lowest. At the same time, the share of the upper class in industrialized societies is approximately 5-7%; middle - 60-80% and lower - 13-35%.

In a number of cases, sociologists make a certain division within each class. Thus, the American sociologist W.L. Warner (1898-1970), in his famous study of Yankee City, identified six classes:

§ upper-upper class (representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties with significant resources of power, wealth and prestige);

§ lower-upper class (“new rich” - bankers, politicians who do not have a noble origin and did not have time to create powerful role-playing clans);

§ upper-middle class (successful businessmen, lawyers, entrepreneurs, scientists, managers, doctors, engineers, journalists, cultural and art figures);

§ lower-middle class (employees - engineers, clerks, secretaries, employees and other categories, which are commonly called "white collars");

§ upper-lower class (workers engaged mainly in physical labor);

§ lower-lower class (beggars, unemployed, homeless, foreign workers, declassed elements).

Thus, social stratification is based on natural and social inequality between people, which manifests itself in their social life and has a hierarchical character. It is sustainably supported and regulated by various social institutions, constantly reproduced and modified, which is an important condition for the functioning and development of any society.

AT different time there were different approaches in determining the causes of social inequality and social stratification.

The Marxist school of sociology indicates that social inequality is based on property relations, the degree, form, and nature of ownership of the means of production.

Functionalists (W. Moore, K. Davis) believe that the distribution of people into strata depends on the contribution made by their work to achieve the goals of society and the significance of their professional activities.

Representatives of the theory of exchange (J. Homans) showed that the emergence of social inequality in society is influenced by an unequal exchange of the results of human activity.

M. Weber proposed to single out the following criteria of social stratification: economic (level of income, attitude to property), social prestige (acquired or inherited status), belonging to certain political circles.

P. Sorokin singled out political (according to the criteria of power and influence), economic (according to the criteria of income and wealth) and professional (according to the criteria of professional skills, mastery, successful performance of social roles) stratification structures.

T. Parsons, the founder of structural functionalism, proposed groups of differentiating features: qualitative characteristics attributed to people from birth (gender and age characteristics, family ties, ethnicity, personal abilities); role characteristics (education, professional and labor activity, position); characteristics showing possession of material and spiritual values (property, wealth, privileges, etc.)

The main criteria for social stratification

In modern sociology, the following criteria for social stratification are distinguished, according to which the division into strata of the population takes place:

Power - the ability to dictate your decisions and will to other people, regardless of their desire; measured by the number of people to whom it applies.
Education - a set of skills, knowledge, skills acquired during training; measured by the number of years of study in public or private schools/universities.
Income - depends on the amount of cash receipts received by an individual or family during certain period time, such as one year or one month.
Wealth - accumulated income (cash or embodied money).
Prestige - respect, public assessment of the significance of the position, profession, status that has developed in the public mind.

Remark 1

The above criteria of social stratification are the most universal for all current societies.

Additional criteria for social stratification

There are certain, specific criteria that influence the position of the individual in society, determine, first of all, his "starting opportunities". Additional criteria for social stratification include:

social background. It is the family that brings the individual into the system of society, determining in many respects his income, profession and education. Insolvent parents recreate probably poor children, which is determined by their education, health, acquired qualifications. Children from poor families are three times more likely to die due to neglect, disease, violence and accidents than children from wealthy families.
gender. To date, in Russian Federation there is an intensified process of feminization of poverty. Regardless of the fact that women and men live in families that belong to different social levels, the status, income of women and the prestige of their professions are often less than that of men.
Ethnicity and race. For example, in the United States of America, people with white skin receive a better education and have a higher professional status than African Americans. Ethnicity also has its influence on social position.
Religion. For example, in American society, members of the Presbyterian and Episcopal churches and Jews occupy the highest social positions. Baptists and Lutherans at a lower level.

social space

P. Sorokin made a significant contribution to the study of status inequality. To determine the sum of all social statuses, he introduced such a concept as social space.

Remark 2

In his work “Social mobility” (1927), P. Sorokin pointed out the impossibility of mixing or comparing such theses as “social space” and “geometric space”. A lower-class person can come into contact with a wealthy person on a physical level, but this circumstance will not at all reduce the prestige, economic or power differences that exist between them, that is, it will not reduce the existing social distance in any way. Consequently, two people between whom there are tangible official, family, property or other social differences do not have the opportunity to stay in the same social space.

Sorokin's social space has a three-dimensional model. It is characterized by three axes of coordinates - political status, professional status, economic status. The social position (general or integral status) of any individual who is integral part of this social space is represented by three coordinates (x, y, z).

Status incompatibility is a situation in which an individual, having a high status along one of the coordinate axes, at the same time has a low status level along the other axis.

Individuals who have high level received education, providing a high social status relative to the professional dimension of stratification, they may occupy a poorly paid position, and, as a result, will have a lower economic status.

The existence of status incompatibility favors the growth of discontent among people, as a result of which they will contribute to radical social changes aimed at changing stratification.