International trade: theories, development, regulatory structure. The theory of comparative advantage is not a theory of international trade

Mercantilist theory developed and implemented in XVI–XVIII centuries, is first of theories international trade.

Supporters of this theory believed that the country needed to limit imports and try to produce everything itself, as well as in every possible way encourage the export of finished products, achieving an influx of currency (gold), i.e., only export was considered economically justified. As a result of a positive balance of trade, the influx of gold into the country increased the ability to accumulate capital and thereby contributed to economic growth, employment and prosperity of the country.

Mercantilists did not take into account the benefits that countries receive in the course of the international division of labor from the import of foreign goods and services.

According to the classical theory of international trade emphasizes that “exchange is favorable for each country; every country finds an absolute advantage in it,” the necessity and importance of foreign trade is proven.

For the first time, the free trade policy was defined A. Smith.

D. Ricardo developed the ideas of A. Smith and argued that it is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which the relative benefit is greatest, where it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness.

Ricardo's reasoning found expression in theories comparative advantage (comparative production costs). D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries.

J. S. Mill showed that according to the law of supply and demand, the price of exchange is set at such a level that the total exports of each country make it possible to cover its total imports.

According to Heckscher-Ohlin theory Countries will always seek to covertly export surplus factors of production and import scarce factors of production. That is, all countries strive to export goods that require significant inputs of production factors, which they have in relative abundance. As a result Leontiev's paradox.

The paradox is that, using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontief showed that the American economy in the post-war period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital.

Theory of comparative advantage was developed by taking into account the following circumstances affecting international specialization:

1. heterogeneity of production factors, primarily the labor force, which differs in skill level;
2. the role of natural resources, which can only be used in production in conjunction with large amounts of capital (for example, in the extractive industries);
3. influence on the international specialization of foreign trade policies of states.

The state can limit imports and stimulate production within the country and exports of products from those industries where relatively scarce factors of production.

In recent decades, significant shifts have occurred in the direction and structure of world trade, which cannot always be fully explained within the framework of classical trade theories. This encourages both the further development of existing theories and the development of alternative theoretical concepts. Among such qualitative shifts, one should first of all take revenge on the transformation technical progress into a dominant factor in world trade, an ever-increasing specific gravity in trade of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods, produced in countries with approximately the same security, a sharp increase in the share of world trade turnover attributable to intra-company trade.

Product life cycle theory

In the mid-1960s, the American economist R. Vernoy put forward the theory life cycle product, which tried to explain the development of world trade finished products based on their life stages, i.e. the period of time during which a product is viable in the market and achieves the seller's objectives.

The position it occupies in the industry is determined by how the company ensures its profitability (competitive advantage). Strength of positions in competition is ensured either by a lower level of costs than competitors, or by differentiation of the manufactured product (improving quality, creating products with new consumer properties, expanding after-sales service capabilities, etc.).

To succeed in the global market, you need the optimal combination of the right choice competitive strategy firms with the country's competitive advantages. M. Porter identifies four determinants of a country's competitive advantage. Firstly, the availability of factors of production, and in modern conditions the main role is played by the so-called developed specialized factors (scientific and technical knowledge, highly qualified work force, infrastructure, etc.) purposefully created by the country. Secondly, the parameters of domestic demand for the products of a given industry, which, depending on its volume and structure, allows for the use of economies of scale, stimulates innovation and improvement in product quality, and pushes firms to enter the foreign market. Thirdly, the presence in the country of competitive supplier industries (which provides quick access to the required resources) and related industries that produce complementary products (which makes it possible to interact in the field of technology, marketing, service, exchange information, etc.) - So clusters of national competitive industries are being formed, as M. Porter puts it. Finally, fourthly, the competitiveness of the industry depends on the national characteristics of the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms, i.e. depending on what are the conditions in the country that determine the features of the creation and management of firms, and what is the nature of competition in the domestic market.

M. Porter emphasizes that countries have the greatest chance of success in those industries or their segments where all four determinants of competitive advantage (the so-called national diamond) are most favorable. Moreover, a national diamond is a system whose components are mutually reinforcing, and each determinant influences all the others. An important role in this process is played by the state, which, by pursuing a targeted economic policy, influences the parameters of production factors and domestic demand, the conditions for the development of supplier industries and related industries, the structure of firms and the nature of competition in the domestic market.

Thus, according to Porter’s theory, competition, including in the global market, is a dynamic, developing process based on innovation and constant technology updates. Therefore, to explain competitive advantage in the global market, it is necessary to “find out how firms and countries improve the quality of factors, increase the efficiency of their use, and create new ones.”

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

International trade is the process of buying and selling between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries.

Under the term " international trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

IN different time Various theories of world trade appeared and were refuted, which in one way or another tried to explain the origin of this phenomenon, determine its goals, laws, advantages and disadvantages. Below are the most common theories of international trade.

Mercantelist theory of international trade.

Of the theories of international trade, the first to emerge was the mercantilist theory, developed and implemented in the 16th-18th centuries. Prominent representatives of this school were Thomas Men and Antoine Montchretien. Proponents of this theory did not take into account the benefits that, in the course of the international division of labor, countries receive from the import of foreign goods and services, and considered only exports to be economically justified. Therefore, mercantilists believed that the country needed to limit imports (except for the import of raw materials) and try to produce everything itself, as well as encourage the export of finished products in every possible way, achieving an influx of currency (gold). The influx of gold into the country as a result of a positive balance of trade increased the opportunities for capital accumulation and thereby contributed to economic growth, employment and prosperity of the country.

The main drawback of this theory should be considered the idea of ​​mercantilists, dating back to the Middle Ages, that the economic benefit of some participants in a commodity exchange transaction (in this case, exporting countries) turns into economic damage for others (importing countries). The main advantage of mercantilism is the policy it developed to support exports, which, however, was combined with active protectionism and support for domestic monopolists. In Russia, the most prominent mercantilist was probably Peter I, who in every possible way encouraged Russian industry and the export of goods, including through high import duties and the distribution of privileges to domestic monopolists.

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantage.

The theory of absolute advantage proceeded from a completely different premise (compared to the mercantilist theory). Its creator, Adam Smith, begins the first chapter of his famous book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), with the words that “the greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor, and the great share of the art, skill, and intelligence with which it directed and applied, were apparently a consequence of the division of labor,” and further comes to the conclusion that “if any foreign country can supply us with any commodity at a cheaper price than we ourselves are able to produce it, much more it is better to buy it from her with a certain part of the product of our own industrial labor applied in the field in which we have some advantage.”

The theory of absolute advantage states that it is advisable for a country to import those goods for which its production costs are higher than those of foreign countries, and export those goods for which its production costs are lower than abroad, i.e. there are absolute advantages. In contrast to the mercantilists, A. Smith advocated freedom of competition within the country and on the world market, sharing the principle of “laissez-faire” put forward by the French economic school of physiocrats - non-interference of the state in the economy.

To the most strong side The theory of absolute advantage must be attributed to the fact that it demonstrates the advantages of international trade for all its participants, to the weak side - that it does not leave a place in international trade for those countries in which all goods are produced without absolute advantages over other countries.

Theory of comparative advantage D. Ricardo.

Former London dealer David Ricardo, in his book “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817), devoted a chapter to this theory, in which he proved that it is beneficial for all countries to participate in international trade.

D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries.

The essence of the theory of comparative advantage is this: if each country specializes in those products in the production of which it has the greatest relative efficiency, or relatively lower costs, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries. The principle of comparative advantage, if extended to any number of countries and any number of products, can have universal significance.

Thus, the theory of relative advantage recommends that a country import that product whose production costs in the country are higher than those of the exported product. Subsequently, economists proved that this applies not only to two countries and two goods, but also to any number of countries and goods.

The main advantage of the theory of comparative advantage is its convincing evidence that international trade is beneficial to all its participants, although it may provide less benefit to some and more to others.

The main disadvantage of Ricardo's theory is that it does not explain why comparative advantages have developed. A serious disadvantage of the theory of comparative advantage is its static nature. This theory ignores any price fluctuations and wages, it abstracts from any inflationary and deflationary gaps at intermediate stages, from all kinds of balance of payments problems. The theory assumes that if workers leave one industry, they do not become chronically unemployed, but move to another, more productive industry.

The theory of relations between production factors.

The question posed above is largely answered by the theory of the relationship between production factors, developed by Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin and described in detail in the latter’s book entitled “Interregional and International Trade” (1933). Using the concept of factors of production (economic resources), created by the French entrepreneur and economist J.-B. Say and then expanded by other economists, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory draws attention to the different endowments of countries with these factors (more precisely, labor and capital, since Heckscher and Ohlin focused on only two factors). The abundance, excess of some factors in the country makes them cheap compared to other, less represented factors. The production of any product requires a combination of factors, and a product whose production is dominated by relatively cheap, redundant factors will be relatively cheap both within the country and on the foreign market and will thus have a comparative advantage. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, a country exports those goods, the production of which is based on factors of production that are surplus to it, and imports goods for the production of which it is less endowed with factors of production.

Leontief's paradox.

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory is shared by most modern economists. However, it does not always give a direct answer to the question of why this or that set of goods predominates in the country’s exports and imports. American economist of Russian origin V. Leontiev, studying US foreign trade in 1947, 1951 and 1967, pointed out that this country with relatively cheap capital and expensive labor force participates in international trade not in accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin theory: imports, rather than exports, turned out to be more capital-intensive.

The so-called Leontief paradox has the following explanations:

highly skilled American labor requires large capital expenditures for its training (i.e., American capital is invested more in human resources than in production capacity);

for the production of American export goods Large volumes of imported mineral raw materials, in the extraction of which American capital was invested, are spent.

But in general, the Leontief paradox is a warning against the straightforward use of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, which, as subsequent testing showed, works in most, but not all cases.

Russia can be classified rather as a typical case for the Heckscher-Ohlin theory: an abundance of natural resources, the presence of large production capacities (i.e. real capital) for the processing of raw materials (metallurgy, chemistry) and a number of advanced technologies (mainly in the production of weapons and dual-use goods ) explain the greater export of raw materials, simple metallurgical and chemical products, military equipment and milk goods.

At the same time, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory does not answer the question of why modern Russia with its huge agricultural resources, few agricultural products are exported, but on the contrary, they are imported in huge quantities; why, in the presence of a relatively cheap and qualified labor force, the country exports little, but imports a lot of civil engineering products. Probably, to explain the reasons for international trade in certain goods, it is not enough only for different countries to have different factors of production. It is also important how effectively these factors are used in a particular country.

The theory of competitive advantage.

This theory was developed American economist M. Porter. One of the common problems of foreign trade theories is the combination of the interests of the national economy and the interests of firms participating in international trade. This is related to the answer to the question: how do individual firms in specific countries obtain competitive advantages in global trade in certain goods, in specific industries?

In his book " International competition" (1990) he concludes that the international competitive advantages of national firms depend on the macro environment in which they operate in their own country.

Based on a study of the practices of companies in 10 leading countries, which account for almost half of world exports, he put forward the concept of “international competitiveness of nations.” A country's competitiveness in international exchange is determined by the impact and interrelation of four main components:

factor conditions;

demand conditions;

the state of service and related industries;

strategy of the company in a certain competitive situation.

Factor conditions are determined by the presence of economic factors, including those arising in the production process (increasing labor productivity with a shortage labor resources, introduction of compact, resource-saving technologies with limited land, development information technologies). The second component - demand - is decisive for the development of the company. At the same time, the state of domestic demand in connection with potential opportunities foreign market has a decisive impact on the company situation. Here it is important to identify national characteristics (economic, cultural, educational, ethnic, traditions and habits) that influence the company’s exit outside the country. M. Porter's approach assumes the predominant importance of the requirements of the internal market for the activities of individual companies.

Third - the state and level of development of service and related industries and industries. Provision of appropriate equipment, close contacts with suppliers, commercial and financial structures. Fourth, the company's strategy and competitive situation. The market strategy chosen by the company and organizational structure, suggesting the necessary flexibility - important prerequisites for successful inclusion in international trade. A serious incentive is sufficient competition in the domestic market. Artificial dominance using state support- a negative decision leading to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the USA in the 90s.

Alternative theories of international trade.

In recent decades, significant shifts have occurred in the direction and structure of world trade, which cannot always be fully explained within the framework of classical trade theories. This encourages both the further development of existing theories and the development of alternative theoretical concepts. The reasons for this are the following: 1) the transformation of technological progress into a dominant factor in world trade; 2) the increasing share in trade of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods produced in countries with approximately the same endowment of production factors; and 3) a sharp increase in the share of world trade turnover accounted for by intra-company trade. Let's look at some alternative theories.

Product life cycle theory.

The essence of the product life cycle theory is this: the development of world trade in finished products depends on the stages of their life, i.e. the period of time during which a product is viable in the market and achieves the seller's objectives.

The product life cycle covers four stages - introduction, growth, maturity and decline. The first stage involves development new products in response to emerging needs within the country. Therefore, the production of a new product is small-scale, requires highly skilled workers and is concentrated in the country of innovation (usually an industrialized country), while the manufacturer occupies an almost monopoly position and only a small part of the product goes to the foreign market.

During the growth stage, demand for a product increases and its production expands and gradually spreads to other countries, the product becomes more standardized, competition between producers increases and exports expand.

The maturity stage is characterized by large-scale production, the price factor becomes predominant in competition, and as markets expand and technologies spread, the country of innovation no longer has a competitive advantage. Manufacturing begins to move to developing countries, where cheap labor can be efficiently used in standardized production processes.

As the product life cycle enters the decline stage, demand, especially in developed countries, declines, production and sales markets are concentrated primarily in developing countries, and the country of innovation becomes a frequent importer.

The product life cycle theory quite realistically reflects the evolution of many industries, but is not a universal explanation of trends in the development of international trade. If Scientific research and development, advanced technology ceases to be the main factor determining competitive advantage, then the production of a product will indeed move to countries that have a comparative advantage in other factors of production, for example, in cheap labor. However, there are many products (with a short life cycle, high transportation costs, significant opportunities for differentiation in quality, a narrow circle of potential consumers, etc.) that do not fit into the life cycle theory.

The theory of economies of scale.

In the early 80s. P. Krugman, K. Lancaster and some other economists proposed an alternative to the classical explanation of international trade, based on the so-called scale effect.

The essence of the effect theory is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average production costs per unit of output are reduced as the volume of output increases, i.e., economies arise due to mass production.

According to this theory, many countries (in particular, industrialized ones) are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and under these conditions it will be profitable for them to trade among themselves while specializing in those industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect mass production. In this case, specialization allows you to expand production volumes and produce a product at lower costs and, therefore, at a lower price. In order for this effect of mass production to be realized, a sufficiently capacious market is necessary. International trade plays a decisive role in this, as it allows expanding markets. In other words, it allows the formation of a single integrated market, more capacious than the market of any individual country. As a result, consumers are offered more products at lower prices.

At the same time, the implementation of economies of scale, as a rule, leads to disruption perfect competition, since it is associated with the concentration of production and the consolidation of firms that turn into monopolists. The structure of markets changes accordingly. They become either oligopolistic with a predominance of inter-industry trade in homogeneous products, or markets monopolistic competition with developed intra-industry trade of differentiated products. In this case, international trade is increasingly concentrated in the hands of giant international firms and transnational corporations, which inevitably leads to an increase in the volume of intra-company trade, the directions of which are often determined not by the principle of comparative advantage or differences in the availability of factors of production, but strategic goals the company itself.

The rule of international specialization, depending on absolute advantages, excluded countries from international trade that did not have them. D. Ricardo in his work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817) developed the theory of absolute advantages and showed that the presence of an absolute advantage in the national production of a particular product is not a necessary condition for the development of international trade - international exchange is possible and desirable if there are comparative advantages.

The theory of international trade by D. Ricardo is based on the following premises:

Free trade;

Fixed production costs;

Lack of international labor mobility;

No transportation costs;

Lack of technical progress;

Full employment;

There is one factor of production (labor).

The theory of comparative advantage states that if countries specialize in the production of those goods that they produce at a relatively lower cost compared to other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than the other. In other words: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can only be the difference in the relative costs of producing goods, regardless of absolute value these costs.

In D. Ricardo's model, domestic prices are determined only by cost, that is, by supply conditions. But world prices can also be set by the conditions of world demand, as proved by the English economist J. Stuart Miles. In his work “Principles of Political Economy,” he showed at what price the exchange of goods between countries takes place.

In free trade, goods will be exchanged at a price ratio that is established somewhere between the relative prices existing within each country for the goods they trade. The exact final price level, that is, world prices of mutual trade, will depend on the volume of world demand and supply for each of these goods.

According to the theory of mutual demand developed by J. S. Mile, the price of an imported product is determined through the price of the product that must be exported in order to pay for the import. Therefore, the final price ratio in trade is determined by the domestic demand for goods in each of the trading countries. The world price is set on the basis of supply and demand, and its level must be such that the income from a country's total exports enables it to pay for imports. However, when analyzing comparative advantage, it is not the market for a single product that is being examined, but the relationship between the markets for two products that are produced simultaneously in two countries. Therefore, we should consider not absolute, but relative volumes of demand and supply of goods.

Thus, this theory is the basis for determining the price of a product based on comparative advantage. However, its disadvantage is that it can only be applied to countries of approximately equal size, when domestic demand in one of them can affect the price level in another.

In conditions of specialization of countries in the trade of goods in the production of which they have a comparative advantage, countries can benefit from trade ( economic effect). The country benefits from trade because it can buy more of the foreign goods it needs from abroad for its goods than in its domestic market. Gains from trade come both from savings in labor costs and from increased consumption.

The significance of the theory of comparative advantage is as follows:

The balance of aggregate demand and aggregate supply is described for the first time. The cost of a product is determined by the ratio of aggregate demand and supply for it, presented both within the country and from abroad;

The theory is valid for any quantity of goods and any number of countries, as well as for the analysis of trade between its various subjects. In this case, the specialization of countries in certain goods depends on the ratio of wage levels in each country;

The theory justified the existence of gains from trade for all countries participating in it;

An opportunity has emerged to build foreign economic policy on a scientific foundation.

The limitations of the theory of comparative advantage lie in the underlying premises on which it is built. It does not take into account the influence of foreign trade on the distribution of income within the country, fluctuations in prices and wages, international capital movements, does not explain trade between almost identical countries, none of which has a relative advantage over the other, and takes into account only one factor of production - labor .

Issues of foreign trade efficiency are among the fundamental problems economic theory, on which economic thought has been working over the past three centuries. The development of foreign trade is reflected in the evolution of theories, models, and concepts that explain the driving forces of this process.

The first attempt to create a theory of international trade, combining trade relations with internal economic development, was made by the mercantilists. Mercantilism theory was based on the idea that the wealth of a country depended on the amount of gold and silver. In this regard, mercantilists believed that in the field of foreign trade it is necessary to maintain an active trade balance and implement government regulation foreign trade activities in order to increase exports and reduce imports.

Mercantilist theories of international trade gave rise to a direction of economic policy that has long outlived it and remains relevant today - protectionism. The policy of protectionism consists in the active protection by the state of the interests of the domestic economy, as they are understood by one or another government.

As a result of mercantilist policies using protectionist instruments, complex systems were created customs duties, taxes, barriers that went against the needs of the emerging capitalist economy. Moreover, the static theory of mercantilism was built on the principle of enriching one country by reducing the well-being of other nations.

The next stage in the development of the theory of international trade is associated with the name of A. Smith, the creator absolute advantage theories. A. Smith believed that the government’s task is not to regulate the sphere of circulation, but to implement measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor, taking into account the support of a free trade regime. The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is that international trade is beneficial if two countries trade goods that each produces at lower costs.

The theory of absolute advantage is only part of the general economic teachings of A. Smith, the ideologist of economic liberalism. From this doctrine flows the policy of free trade, opposed to protectionism.

Modern economists see the strength of the theory of absolute advantage in the fact that it shows the clear advantages of the division of labor not only at the national level, but also at the international level. Weak side this theory: it does not explain why countries trade even in the absence of absolute advantages.

The answer to this question was found by another English economist D. Ricardo, who discovered law of comparative advantage, which states: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can be an exceptional difference in the costs of production of goods, regardless of absolute values.

The role and significance of the law of comparative advantage is evidenced by the fact that for many decades it remained predominant in explaining the efficiency of foreign trade turnover and had a strong impact on the entire economic science.

However, D. Ricardo left unanswered the question of the origin of comparative advantages, which form the necessary prerequisites for the development of international trade. In addition, the limitations of this law include those assumptions that were introduced by its creator: one factor of production was taken into account - labor, production costs were considered constant, the production factor was mobile within the country and immobile outside its borders, there were no transport costs.

During the 19th century. the labor theory of value (created by D. Ricardo and developed by K. Marx) gradually lost its popularity, faced with competition from other teachings; At the same time, great changes took place in the system of international division of labor and international trade, caused by a decrease in the role of natural differences and an increase in the importance industrial production. As a response to the challenge of the time, neoclassical economists E. Heckscher and B. Ohlin created theory of factors of production: mathematical calculations for it are given by P. Samuelson. This theory can be represented by two interrelated theorems.

The first of them, explaining the structure of international trade turnover, not only recognizes that trade is based on comparative advantage, but also derives the cause of comparative advantage from differences in the endowment of factors of production.

Second - factor price equalization theorem Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson - affects the effect of international trade on factor prices. The essence of this theorem is that an economy will be relatively more efficient by producing goods that make more intensive use of factors that are abundantly available in a given country.

The limitations of the theory are due to many assumptions. It was assumed that returns to scale are constant, factors are mobile within the country and immobile outside it, competition is perfect, there are no transport costs, tariffs or other obstacles.

It can be noted that in the field of analysis of foreign trade until the middle of the 20th century. Economic thought concentrated more on the study of the supply of goods and factors of production and did not pay due attention to demand due to the emphasis on considering the reduction of production costs.

The theory of comparative advantage became the starting point not only for the development of the theory of factors of production, but also for two other directions, the specificity of which is determined by the fact that they pay attention not only to supply, but also to demand.

In this context, the first direction is associated with the theory of mutual demand, created by the follower of D. Ricardo J.St. Mill, who derived the law of international value, showing at what price the exchange of goods between countries takes place: the more external support for the goods of a given country and the less capital is used for the production of export goods, the more favorable the terms of trade will be for the country. Further development this theory was obtained in general equilibrium models, created by A. Marshall and F. Edgeworth.

D. Ricardo's law also led to the development theories opportunity costs . The prerequisite for its creation was that the facts of economic life came into conflict with the labor theory of value.

In addition, replacement costs are not constant, as in the theory of comparative advantage, but growing according to a pattern known from general economic theory and in accordance with economic realities.

The foundations of the theory of opportunity costs were laid by G. Haeberler and F. Edgeworth.

This theory was based on the fact that:

• production possibility curves (or transformation curves) have a negative slope and show that the actual ratio of output of different goods is different for each country, which encourages them to trade with each other;
• if the curves coincide, then trade is based on differences in tastes and preferences;
• supply is determined by the curve of the maximum level of transformation, and demand is determined by the curve of the maximum level of substitution;
• the equilibrium price at which trade is conducted is determined by the relationship between relative world supply and demand.

Thus, comparative advantages have been proven based not only on labor theory cost, but also from the theory of opportunity costs. The latter showed that there is no complete specialization of the country in the field of foreign trade, since after achieving an equilibrium price in mutual trade, further specialization of each country loses its economic meaning.

Despite the fundamental nature and evidence presented, the theories considered were constantly subjected to testing, carried out on the basis of various empirical data. The first study of the theory of comparative advantage was carried out in the early 1950s by McDougall, who confirmed the law of comparative advantage and showed the existence of a positive relationship between the labor productivity equation in individual industries and the share of their products in total exports. In the context of globalization and internationalization of world economic relations, basic theories cannot always explain the existing diversity of international commodity exchange. In this regard, an active search continues for new theories that provide answers to various questions of international trade practices. These studies can be divided into two large groups. The first, using a neofactor approach, is based on the assertion that traditional theories require clarification in particular regarding the quantity of factors of production and their quality.

Within the framework of this direction, the following models, hypotheses and concepts have been developed and proposed.

1. A study carried out by V. Leontiev in 1956 served as the basis for the emergence of a model of skilled labor developed by D. Keesing, who proved that not two, but three factors are used in production: skilled, unskilled labor and capital. In this regard, the unit costs of production of export goods are calculated for each group separately.
2. P. Samuelson's theory of specific factors of production showed that international trade is based on differences in the relative prices of goods, which in turn arise due to different degrees of endowment of factors of production, with factors specific to the export sector developing, and factors specific to import-competing sectors are shrinking.
3. An important place in this direction is given to the issue of distribution of income from international trade. This question was developed in the theorems of Stolper-Samuelson, Rybchinsky, Samuelson-Jones.
4. Swedish economist S. Linder, who created the theory of overlapping demand, suggests that the similarity of tastes and preferences enhances foreign trade, since countries export goods for which there is a capacious domestic market. The limitation of this theory is due to the fact that it manifests itself with an even distribution of income between individual groups of countries.

The second group of studies, emerging on the basis of the neo-technological approach, analyzes situations not covered by the presented theories, rejects the position on the decisive importance of differences in factors or technologies and requires new alternative models and concepts.

Within this direction, the advantages of a country or firm are determined not by the targeting of factors and not by the intensity of the factors spent, but by the monopoly position of the innovator in technological terms. A number of new models have been created here that develop and enrich the theory of international trade from both the supply and demand side.

1. Theory of economies of scale justified in the works of P. Krugman: the effect of scale allows us to explain trade between countries that are equally endowed with factors of production, similar goods, provided imperfect competition. In this case, the external effect of scale involves an increase in the number of firms producing the same product, while the size of each of them remains unchanged, which leads to perfect competition. Internal economies of scale contribute to the emergence of imperfect competition, where producers can influence the price of their goods and achieve increased sales by lowering prices. In addition, special attention is paid to the analysis of large firms - transnational companies (TNCs), due to the fact that the company that produces products on the most cost-effective scale occupies a dominant position in the world market, and world trade tends to gravitate toward giant international monopolies.

The neo-technological school associates the main advantages with the monopoly positions of the company (country) - the innovator and offers new strategy: produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what is necessary for everyone or many and that no one else can produce yet. At the same time, many economists who are supporters of this direction, in contrast to supporters of the model of comparative advantage, believe that the state can and should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of production of other, outdated ones.

2. Intra-industry trade model is based on the postulates of the theory of economies of scale. Intra-industry exchange provides additional benefits from foreign trade relations due to market expansion. In this case, a country can simultaneously reduce the number of goods it produces but increase the number it consumes. By producing a smaller set of goods, a country realizes economies of scale, increasing productivity and reducing costs. P. Krutman and B. Balassa made a significant contribution to the development of the theory.

Intra-industry exchange is related to the theory of similarity, which explains the cross-trade of comparable goods belonging to the same industry. In this regard, the role of acquired advantages associated with the development and implementation of new technologies is increasing. According to the theory of country similarity, in this situation, a developed country has great opportunity adapt their products to the markets of similar countries.

3. Supporters dynamic models Ricardian explanation of the international exchange of technological differences and J. Schum-Peter's theses on the determining role of innovation are used as initial theoretical justifications. They believe that countries differ from each other not only in the availability of production resources, but also in the level of technical development.

One of the first among dynamic models is the theory of the technological gap of M. Posner, who believed that as a result of the emergence of technological innovations, a “technological gap” is formed between countries that have them and those that do not.

4. Life cycle theory R. Vernon explains the specialization of countries in the production and export of the same product at different stages of maturity. In the Asia-Pacific region, where there is a continuous process of sequential passage of certain phases economic development, the concept of “flying geese” by K. Akamatsu took shape and was confirmed by practice, according to which a hierarchy of international exchanges is formed, corresponding to different levels of development of groups of countries.

It examines the connections between two groups of characteristics;

• evolution of imports - domestic production - exports;
• transfer from consumer goods to capital-intensive from simple industrial products to more complex ones.

At the present stage, special attention is paid to the problem of combining the interests of the national economy and large firms participating in international trade. This direction solves the problems of competitiveness at the level of the state and the company. Thus, M. Porter calls the main criteria of competitiveness factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of service industries, and the company’s strategy in a certain competitive situation. At the same time, M. Porter notes that the theory of comparative advantage is applicable only to basic factors such as undeveloped physical resources and unskilled labor. In the presence of developed factors ( modern infrastructure, exchange of information on a digital basis, highly educated personnel, research at individual universities) this theory cannot fully explain the specifics of foreign trade practice.

M. Porter also puts forward a rather radical position, according to which in the era of transnationalization one should not talk about trade between countries at all, since it is not countries that trade, but firms. Apparently, in relation to our time, when different countries Protectionist mechanisms are used to varying degrees when brands like “made in USA”, “Italian furniture”, “white assembly”, etc. still remain attractive, this situation is still premature, although it clearly reflects a real trend.

5. Complements the neo-technological analysis of the factors of the international division of labor concept by I. B. Kreivis, which uses the concepts of price elasticity of demand and supply to measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. According to Kravis, every country imports goods that it either cannot produce itself or can produce in limited quantities and whose supply is elastic, while at the same time exporting goods with highly elastic and superior production to local needs. As a result, a country's foreign trade is determined by the comparative level of elasticity of national and external supply of goods, as well as by higher rates of technological progress in export industries.

In conclusion, we note that at the present stage, theories of international trade pay equal attention to both demand and supply, strive to explain practical issues that arise in the course of foreign trade between countries, modifying the international trade system, and are formed on the basis of the criterion of clarifying factors and their quantities, as well as the monopoly position of the innovator in technological terms.

The deepening of globalization processes in world economic relations confirms the viability of all theories, and practice confirms the need for their constant modification.