Mass production enterprises are examples. What are the types of production? Real examples of small-scale production

The development of machine-building production, especially manifested in last years, both in the creation of new essentially new technical means, and in the emergence of new strategies for constructing production systems, has led to the fact that many of the fundamental principles and concepts used in its description cease to fully correspond to reality. This phenomenon is inherent in any real systems in which significant changes occur, and each time leads to a complex process of rethinking the theoretical foundations and practical recommendations that until recently seemed eternal.

Thus, the problem of developing new time standards is generally recognized as relevant today, both for the performance of technological operations and for the stages of pre-production. There is nothing heretical or disrespectful in relation to the classics who participated in the creation of the norms: they are outdated, because they could not become outdated. However, the problem is deeper, since the progress of engineering production has significantly gone beyond the bounds within which one could limit oneself to only a huge, but mostly mechanical work on the development of new standards. The new state of machine-building production requires a revision of the basics of its description, and then - the development of new practical recommendations that correspond to the new fundamentals. Of course, the revision does not mean a complete rejection of existing concepts and principles; as in any developing science, new definitions and new theories should include the previous ones as special cases, or expand them in accordance with the expansion and complication of the subject area. One of the fundamental concepts used in the design of production and technological processes and systems is the concept of "production type". Since ancient times, the division of production into mass, single and serial, which later received an internal division, has been known. This classification fully corresponded to the time of its creation and does not correspond at all to the present time, which is practically universally recognized. In modern writings on the design and reconstruction industrial enterprises, a reservation is often made that “types of production are traditionally distinguished”. At the same time, a new classification is being sought.

One of the common opinions is that all production is now mass-produced. Another point of view proposes to divide production systems into two types: flexible and inflexible. There are also other proposals for the introduction of new classification features, including such as the scale of production and its planning. The common thing in all these (and other) hypotheses is that the type of production is still proposed to be identified by any one feature and called by one word. The main reason for this is the traditional nature and "familiarity" of such an approach. Meanwhile, modern mechanical engineering and industrial production as a whole are much more diverse than it was at the time when the hitherto existing classification was created. And loyalty to traditions can no longer be a decisive argument in favor of maintaining such one-criteria.

Even in the name of a cutter, there may be more than five signs, but production is an object much more complex than a cutter. It can be recognized that modern production systems cannot be unambiguously classified by one parameter.

Having recognized the possibility of a multi-parameter classification of types of production, it is necessary to single out the main and additional classification features. Strictly speaking, to divide the classification features into basic and additional ones, since they are known and are constantly used in the scientific and technical literature. To select the main classification features, the following criteria can be formulated:

• - There should not be too many main features, so as not to create confusion, ambiguity and internal inconsistency in the classification.
• - The main features should not be in an explicit functional or close correlation relationship.
• - The main features should be reliably determined in the early stages of the design of production systems.
• - The main features should give the most complete picture of the goals of the designed production, and not be characteristics of the equipment used or organizational forms.
• - The main features should be applicable to any of the existing or planned production systems, in contrast to the additional features that determine the specific requirements imposed in special cases.

In general, it seems reasonable to use as criteria the target properties of production systems, which cannot be very numerous.

It is proposed to single out four main classification features of production systems:

• 1. The scale of production
• 2. Nomenclature of production
• 3. Changeability of production
• 4. Predictability of production.

The first two signs are obvious: of course, enterprises producing a thousand or a million units of the same product per year will differ significantly from each other, both in terms of the equipment used and in the organization of production. As well as different enterprises will be arranged, producing any one product and many products. At the same time, multi-nomenclature in itself does not at all mean small-scale, and single-nomenclature does not mean large-scale. The largest number of enterprises that exist today in industrialized countries are small businesses, specializing in the production and supply of a limited range of products or components, both directly to the market, and for large companies that are increasingly striving to leave only the functions of market operation, design and general assembly to their own divisions. Both of these varieties of production systems fit very poorly into the traditional classification of types of production.

The third classification feature production system it might be adaptable. Indeed, an enterprise can produce a large range of products on a large scale, but at the same time, the same operation will be performed at each workplace during the year (it is for this feature that the “classic” criterion is best suited - the coefficient of consolidation of operations, while while the tables that replace it, depending on the type of production on the number of manufactured products, speak of the scale of production, and not of its readjustability). Production can be multi-product and little readjusted, as well as low-product and often readjusted. The size of the enterprise, the number of employees, the types and quantity of equipment, organizational forms, and structural and layout solutions significantly depend on this.

The fourth main hallmark of production is its predictability. There are enterprises in which production programs are known for several years in advance, and the launch of new products takes months or even years. The other extreme is enterprises working on external, poorly predictable orders. Such industries have been developed not so long ago, which was facilitated by advances in the automation of technical preparation for production and the emergence of equipment that combines wide technological capabilities with high productivity. Here is an example of setting tasks for the production of spare parts for a certain area of ​​mechanical engineering (taken from a real conversation with company managers): “we know about two thousand possible parts, each customer can bring a completely unknown drawing, their needs are determined by equipment breakdowns, and therefore are completely unpredictable, in the morning we don't know exactly what we have to do in the evening; At the same time, we must fulfill any order within three days, otherwise customers will go to competitors. The presence of competition and a significant increase in the range of manufactured products significantly reduce the "average" level of predictability modern production. This feature is very important, since the ratio of time spent on the actual production and on its preparation largely depends on it. In general, in view of the undoubted increase in the range of manufactured products and the related lack of opportunities in most branches of engineering to support non-resettable production, special attention should now be paid to the problems of reducing production preparation time and changeover time.

The proposed classification includes the previous one as special cases. Thus, the "classic" mass production of the Henry Ford era can be defined as large-scale, multi-product, rarely reconfigured and highly predictable. Production is single - as small-scale, medium-sized, often readjusted and poorly predictable. Of course, within the same enterprise there may be divisions with different types of production.

In addition to the main classification features, additional ones related to more particular examples of production systems can be proposed. Unlike the main features, additional features can be omitted in cases where they are not essential. So, one of the additional classification features can be the complexity of manufactured products. This property, usually well known at the design stage, significantly affects both the equipment used and the organization of the production process, but is not essential for all possible productions. The same applies (for example) to the danger of production and its secrecy.

Additional features may include the restructuring of production - the ability of the production system to switch to the production of a significantly different range of products. In cases where such a transition is not carried out according to the “completely demolish and rebuild” scheme, rebuildability must be taken into account even when designing the previous production, which affects design decisions and entails additional costs. A special case of restructuring is dual-use enterprises, for which this feature is one of the main ones.

Among the most important additional features is the modifiability of production, that is, the ability of the production system to produce various modifications of products within the range. Of course, the modern market of industrial products requires manufacturers to produce an increasing number of product modifications. However, the question of required level the modifiability of production systems does not have such an unambiguous answer as it is sometimes believed. The reason for this is well known: modifiability is a very costly feature.

A special conversation is about flexibility. Like any term used for promotional purposes, the concept of flexibility requires a careful approach. Flexibility can be defined as the ability of a technological or production system to adapt to changing tasks that do not go beyond some predetermined limits. This property, given by nature to man, is very difficult to achieve in automatic and automated systems.

A person standing at the assembly line, without significant readjustment, is able to wrap a rusty screw in one car, and a chrome-plated screw in another. But flexibility, even here, does not mean permissiveness: it requires the interchangeability of screws and the presence of instructions for a person.

A modern CNC automatic lathe is capable of processing different parts within one bar, if the tool setting allows it to do this and the program forces it to do so.

In general, the flexibility of a technological or production system is not its target property, flexibility is one of the ways to achieve the goal, especially useful in those production conditions that are typical for the present - multi-production and poor predictability.

The need to revise the classification of types of production does not belong to the realm of speculative reasoning.

The existing principles are embedded in the standards used in the design and reconstruction of industries, as well as in the worldview of many people.

Of course, the current state of machine-building production is significantly different from the one in the era of which the existing classification was formulated and the existing standards were drawn up, and therefore this problem is very relevant.

Classification groups that combine goods of the same name and with similar characteristics are types of products. Their standard characteristics, depending on the purpose of use, the method of manufacture and production, form various specific concepts. But this is not the whole classification. In addition to product types, there are also its main types.

Group by type

The grouping of goods according to the similarity of purpose, principle of operation, design and technical parameters reflected in the brand of products is called the type of product. Things, means and products intended for sale are called marketable products. A specific type includes products with the specified technological characteristics and design solutions, operating principles, and specific functions. The new products of the enterprise combine specific products with the highest requirements, reliability, the required level of quality and economically justified changes.

The renaming applies to products whose technical and consumer characteristics no longer satisfy modern users. On the industrial production with established technology produce a mastered type of product. If its production is transferred to another manufacturer, then a period of time is required for development. Completed product readiness cycle, generated product cost, compliance with all standard requirements, documenting batches transfer products to the finished product category.

Goods classification

It is used to process data on products in various production areas, quality indicators, study the needs of customers and related industries, release planning and distribution accounting. Classification into certain types of products helps to certify goods, conduct economic and marketing research of the market.

Product classification requirements

Classification in the conditions of the modern market meets certain requirements:

• Objectively expresses reliable information on the study of commodity properties.
• Accurately observes the accepted commodity encodings.
• Include newly created consumer goods with the help of flexible classification in the usual list. At the same time, it does not change the principles of the accepted standardization.

Trade and Commodity Qualification System

Products used for production are defined as technical goods. The division is based on the industry principle, a sign of the source material, use. Types of products intended for use by the population are consumer goods. Products for the defense needs of the country constitute the type of military use. Industrial group goods combine products used in further production as raw materials and technological equipment.

Division of industrial category goods

Depending on the type of production and its characteristic features, goods industrial use subdivided into main equipment and auxiliary equipment. The first variety is intended directly for production. The auxiliary group is used in service departments, tool shops, boiler houses, power plants, automatic production control systems.

Consumer Goods Division

This product group is divided into three classes:

• food, food products;
• non-food group;
• medical products.

Within these classes there is a division into homogeneous groups. They are distinguished by similar production technologies based on similar components. These products are not completely identical, but perform the same functions. And can be replaced in service.

Example of food classification

A food group is a product Food Industry, which includes food in finished or natural form for consumption. In addition, such products include bottled drinking water, alcohol, chewing gums, non-alcoholic products, additives, spices. Class food products divided into subclasses:

1. Ancillary products. These are spices, food additives, spices and seasonings, thickeners and others.
2. Vegetable products: pasta, fruits and vegetables, alcohol, tea, coffee, sugar, starch, flour and confectionery products, vegetable oil, margarine.
3. Goods of animal origin. These are dairy products and sour-milk food, meat and semi-finished products from it, sausages, fish, seafood, eggs.
4. Combined goods. This is baby food and food concentrated products.

In addition to classification, food products are divided into gastronomy and groceries. The first group includes products that are sold ready-made for human consumption. For example, sausages, smoked meats, deli meats, cheeses, canned food, milk, alcohol, agricultural products. The grocery group contains goods intended for subsequent preparation. These are flour, cereals, pasta, sugar, tea, spices, etc.

An example of the division of non-food products into subclasses

This class includes products obtained in production to meet the economic needs of the population, organizations, production associations. For food consumption by humans or animals, such products are not used:

1. Clothing and footwear products and textiles. These are all kinds of outfits, hats, underwear, stockings and socks. These include fur products, shoes, fabrics and non-woven materials, threads, sewing and needlework accessories, haberdashery.
2. Hygiene products. This subclass includes perfumes, cosmetics, sanitation and personal care products. For example, razors, toothbrushes, perfumes, eau de toilette, shampoos, decorative cosmetics.
3. Products for decoration: jewelry, objects of decorative and applied art.
4. Cultural and household goods. This includes electronic appliances and devices, office electrical office equipment, communications equipment, photo and video equipment, sports equipment, products for intellectual and mental creativity.
5. Vehicles. The group unites all types of land and water transport, lubricants, fuel for engines, spare parts for vehicles and mechanisms.
6. Household goods. This includes furniture, utensils, household appliances, Construction Materials and products. In addition, products of the chemical industry, household equipment, agricultural tools.

Classification of consumer goods

To product group daily demand refers to products that a person buys often, for everyday use. The buyer does not think about how to compare similar products and does not spend tangible effort on this. This group of goods includes bread, dairy products, washing powder, garbage bags, toothpaste. This also includes items and food products of the so-called impulse purchase, an unplanned purchase: bars, drinks, chewing gums, newspapers, magazines. The same group contains items, the need for which arises as a result of an unforeseen situation. For example, buying an umbrella in rainy weather.

The group of goods of pre-selection includes products, before buying which a person spends comparative analysis with other similar products, calculates the economic benefit. And he chooses the alternative he likes. There are products that have small differential differences, depending on the brand of the manufacturer. This group includes refrigerators, washing machines, microwave ovens, mixers, etc. Goods with great distinctive features also belong here. These are clothes, underwear, shoes, hats, furniture, wallpaper and more.

A group of products with special demand are items with unique features that are of great value in the consumer market. These include prestigious jewelry, works of art, light industry products. The bulk are fashionable, collectible items.

The next group is represented by passive demand goods, which are characterized by the fact that buyers do not know anything about it or have never thought about purchasing products. Examples are various household indicators, waste recycling devices, insurance policies, smart papers, etc.

Light Industry Division

The branch of light industry includes many divisions and complexes. Their total number is 25. A little less than 600 types of organizations and manufacturing enterprises operate in the field of industry. The main classification structures of light industry include silk, knitwear, linen, wool, fur, footwear and other industries. Main industrial complexes work in the textile industry. The material is supported by agricultural products in the form of vegetable raw materials for the needs of light industry.

Classifier of chemical goods

Products of the chemical industry are divided into 7 classes. Each of them is divided into 52 subclasses. Classes include:

• Chemical minerals of mining, products of their primary processing, inorganic origin.
• Polymeric materials: synthetically derived rubber, plastics, chemical and plastic fibers.
• Paints, varnishes, solvents.
• Synthetic, organic materials and dyes.
• Organically synthesized products of oil refining, coke, materials for chemical processes.
• Reagents of chemical origin, pure substances for high-precision production.
• Medicines, medicines for the pharmaceutical industry.

Tangible and intangible products

Raw materials are products that are used for processing. The result is material. It is intended for the manufacture of products or materials of a different quality. A product is a unit of production. It is determined in individual instances and pieces. The product is a consequence of the labor produced, but refers to products. At the same time it is used for consumption and does not serve the purpose of further exploitation. Products that are packaged in easily damaged packaging, after which they cannot be consumed, are called consumables.

The product comes as a result human activity. It is designed to meet needs. This category is divided into products of tangible and intangible activities. The first, intended for commercial exchange, belongs to the category of goods. These are food products, household products, chemical materials, products, etc. The intangible category includes insurance, legal services, etc.

Product Main Features

In order for items of production to be classified as products, they must meet certain characteristics:

• the product is the result of activity;
• it serves to meet the needs of society and individual citizens.

According to the method of production, products are divided into industrial, agricultural, natural. In the sphere of sales, trade stands out, which includes retail. It consists in the sale, loading and delivery of heavy large items, professional advice of sellers on how to use new products and their demonstration in action.

In conclusion, it should be said that the classification of goods is a necessary gradation for determining operational characteristics, processing information about productivity in various industries, studying demand for categories, groups. Despite the large variety of manufactured products, thanks to the classification, it undergoes system standardization and is subject to certification within the established framework.

Starting your own business with a small production is a great opportunity to enter both the domestic market and, possibly, the external one in the future. Why not take advantage of it?

What is the difference between a small-scale type of production and a single

The type of production is general characteristics its technical, organizational and economic features. This property depends on the specialization, type and constancy of the product range, as well as the form of movement in the workplace. Next, consider the existing types of production.

Single type of production.

Single - a form of organization of production, which implies the manufacture of different types of products in one or more copies (that is, by piece production).

Single production is characterized mainly by the fact that the plant program usually includes a large range of products for various purposes. At the same time, the production of each product is planned in a limited quantity. The range of products in the plant's program is unstable. Due to the fact that the assortment can change, is diverse, and the production of products is carried out in limited volumes, standardized design and technological solutions cannot be used to the full. Therefore, there is a large proportion of original parts with a very small relative number of unified ones.

Production of products is carried out continuously. Moreover, the release of each unit takes quite a long time. Manufacturing enterprises use universal high-tech equipment, and during assembly, quite a lot of work is done manually. At the same time, the skills of specialists are quite versatile. About how to double the productivity of the plant,

Single production has become widespread in the field of heavy engineering (the production of large machines for the ferrous metallurgy and energy), the chemical industry, and the service industry.

As a rule, in the shops of single-production plants there is a section organized according to the technological principle. Due to the high labor intensity of products, the high qualification of the personnel involved in the main processes, the increased costs of materials associated with large production volumes, the cost of products is high. The cost of products consists of several components, one of which is the wages of workers. In some cases, this is 20-25% of all costs.

Serial type of production.

With a serial form, production is organized in such a way that the company produces large batches (series) of products with a certain frequency. Today it is serial and small-scale production that are the most common forms. The enterprise in this case regularly produces a large range of products - the annual range of manufactured products is wider than the monthly one. Thanks to this, it is possible to organize a rather rhythmic production of goods. Due to large or relatively large production volumes, it is possible to unify manufactured products and technological processes, to produce standard or normalized parts that are included in the design ranges, in large volumes, which reduces their cost.

Serial production is used by enterprises specializing in machine tool building, the production of rolled ferrous metals, etc.

A distinctive feature of the organization of labor within the framework of serial production is high specialization. Each production worker performs several operations assigned to him for the release and processing of parts. Thanks to this, each specialist has a perfect command of the tool, knows the entire processing process from and to, acquires the necessary skills and improves them. In serial production, the release of products according to a cyclically repeating schedule is economically feasible.

Serial production is divided into the following subtypes:

• small-scale;
• serial;
• large-scale.

Small-scale production has much in common with single production, and large-scale production has much in common with mass production. This division is conditional. For example, based on Woodward's classification, production can be single and small-scale (Unit Production), mass (Mass Production) and continuous (Process Production).

Small-scale production is a transitional form from single to serial. Small-scale production is characterized by the production of products in small batches.

At the moment, the engineering industry has acquired an additional competitive advantage. It lies in the fact that enterprises in this industry have begun to produce unique equipment, often of increased complexity, in small batches on special orders from customers.

Due to the fact that processes have now become computerized, and technologies have become more flexible, the qualities of an in-line industrial process have begun to be traced in small-scale production. In particular, it has now become possible to manufacture several types of products on one production line with minimal time spent on reconfiguring equipment.

Large-scale production is the transition to mass production.

Large-scale production means the production of products in large batches for a long time. As a rule, the specialization of companies of this type is the production of individual products or sets on a subject basis.

Mass production type.

In mass production, the process is organized in such a way that the firm regularly releases a strictly limited range of goods. These products are manufactured simultaneously and in parallel, and their purpose, design and technological type are homogeneous.

A distinctive feature of the mass form of production is the production of one type of product in large volumes over a long period of time.

Mass production has an important feature. We are talking about limiting the range of products. A plant or workshop produces 1-2 items of goods. This ensures the economic feasibility of widespread use in the designs of universal and interchangeable elements.

There is no difference between the individual units of manufactured goods (only characteristics and equipment may differ slightly).

The period of passage of a unit of product through the system is short - minutes or hours are used to measure it. The number of trade names in the programs for the month and the year is the same.

Production differs in high standardization, its knots and details are unified. Within the framework of mass production, technological processes are highly automated and comprehensively mechanized. As a rule, such a production form is used automobile factories, agricultural machinery enterprises, shoe industry factories, etc.

Large production volumes allow the use of equipment with high productivity (automatic machines, aggregate machines, automatic lines). Universal equipment is not used - it is replaced with a special one. Within the framework of a differentiated technological process, jobs are narrowly specialized - each is assigned a limited number of detail operations.

Thanks to technological process is carefully developed, special machines and equipment are used, it is possible to involve workers-operators with a narrow specialization in production. At the same time, highly qualified adjusting workers are also widely involved in the production.

Small batch production - how many pieces?

Production	Number of workpieces
	Heavy (m > 100 kg)	Medium (m from 10 to 100 kg)	Lungs (m up to 10 kg)
single
Small-scale
Medium series
large-scale
Mass

Small batch production ratio

We have already figured out that the type of production is a cumulative characteristic of its technical, organizational and economic properties. The type of production depends on the breadth of the nomenclature, regularity, stability and volume of production of goods. Main indicator, which characterizes the type of production, is the coefficient of consolidation of operations (Kz). The coefficient of consolidation of operations for a group of jobs is the ratio of the number of all the various technological operations that have already been completed or that are to be performed within a month to the number of jobs:

• Kopi - the number of operations carried out at the i-th workplace;
• Kr.m - the number of jobs on the site or in the shop.

Consider small-batch, medium-batch production, as well as large-batch. The coefficient of consolidation of operations for small-scale production is from 21 to 40 (inclusive), for medium-scale production - from 11 to 20 (inclusive), for large-scale production - from 1 to 10 (inclusive).

Small-scale production on the example of a restaurant

This classification system can be applied to companies producing and delivering food products. Of course, there are exceptions when establishments Catering They make their own products and provide services. Cooking is the responsibility of cooks, the provision of services - waiters.

Basically, restaurants are companies whose production is small-scale. Visitors pass through the system in small groups, receiving certain types of products and services. Each customer segment of the company is served in separately, using production resources that can satisfy his needs and wishes.

As for cafeterias, their production is mass in-line. The food is not prepared for the individual visitor. Customers take turns going through the system and choosing the standard dishes they want to try.

Finally, companies specializing in servicing banquets and other official events work according to the project implementation scheme. Firms plan each banquet taking into account the dishes ordered by the client, as well as the quantity and specifics of the services provided. Preparations for the banquet should be made well in advance of the delivery date. As part of such operating system it is possible to serve only a limited number of such events at the same time.

Yes, in machine shop all turning equipment for small-scale production is installed on the territory of one site, drilling - another, etc. Large car repair enterprises, as a rule, have their own sections for different types of service: engines are adjusted on one, bodywork is performed on the other, the front suspension is repaired on the third. Such a scheme is usually used in a small-scale form of production, when individual products or customers move from one site to another, depending on specific requirements.

The hardest part of developing an operational plan is minimizing the customer movement or transport required to process a batch of products or provide a service to customers passing through the system.

Real examples of small-scale production

Small-scale production of electric mail delivery vans in Germany

Small-scale production of plastic products

Small-scale production is a great start for an invention business

A business based on an invention, if it is in demand, can bring good income. Many inventions at the development stage did not seem very useful, but later it turned out that they were highly profitable. As a result, their authors became millionaires.

First you need to research the market and determine whether there will be a demand for the product that you plan to release. In fact, it doesn’t matter if you create a product yourself or use the services of a third party who already has interesting inventions. The difference can only be in one thing - in the authorship of the patent for the creation.

If you are an inventor, everything is easy here. You need to contact Federal Institute industrial property and apply for a patent. In this article, we will not dwell on the legal intricacies of the procedure. We are now interested in the existence of a patent.

If the author is not you, you have the opportunity to invest in development and become a partner of the author of a “miracle product”, from which you will receive income in the future. Another option is to buy out a patent. Everything depends on your wishes.

After registration of the invention and obtaining a patent, you can begin to produce products. Here small-scale production will become best solution because it doesn't require a huge investment. To start your own business given form the most optimal.

In the future, if your invention finds its target audience and the demand for it is sufficient, do not hesitate to develop and expand production capacity. But at the start, it is small-scale production that allows you to understand the needs of the buyer and, if necessary, correct something: configuration, color scheme, change the functionality, and so on.

When viewed from this angle, high-volume production does not have that flexibility, and it will be costly to make changes.

Research results indicate that small-scale production is more economically feasible, as it pays off faster. Calculations show that the payback period for their introduction and maintenance is 1.5–2 years. To justify the cost of large-scale production, it takes from 2.5 to three years.

Organization of small-scale production

Small-scale production is organized according to a scheme that differs significantly from large-scale production. The process of the latter type begins with the assumption that it is supposed to work "to the warehouse", Make-To-Stock (MTS) in accordance with the classification proposed by GartnerGroup. When planning the production volume, the calculation is that all manufactured products will be sold.

Determining the quantity of production for the future within the framework of small-scale production (Make-To-Order, MTO) is carried out on the basis of received orders. Because of this difference, there is a significant difference in the operation of the enterprise and its accounting.

The organization of small-scale production has a number of distinctive features.

Large range of products and components for them.

Consider the main features of small-scale production. One of them is that each order is, in fact, a unique product. In the overall volume, orders are rarely repeated compared to new orders, leading to a rapid increase in the product range.

If a new nomenclature unit (new product) is introduced in production, the enterprise must perform certain operations aimed at technological preparation of the industrial process. In particular, it is necessary to develop technological procedures for manufacturing, establish standards, create a template, equipment, etc. The entire operating cycle is determined by a specific order, and it should be worked out individually.

In this regard, for the effective functioning of small-scale production, it is necessary that all operations of technological preparation of capacities be put on stream. Also, the enterprise must provide work with a large volume of the range of products.

Order tracking.

In fact, an order is an agreement between a client and a company, where conditions, terms and price are prescribed. The agreement is usually accompanied by various appendices that clarify and sometimes change its content. In Russian realities, the terms of the contract are constantly being adjusted, even when the products are already being produced. The requirements for the creation of products, their composition and structure, and technological processes of production are changing.

In addition to developing and maintaining a bespoke agreement, a company must ensure that it has latest version design documents. If the client requires adjustments, it is necessary to re-coordinate the project, carry out technological preparation, and so on.

Small-scale production has another distinctive feature - the payment procedure. The customer can contribute it in parts in accordance with the terms of the agreement. Each tranche needs to be controlled, to make sure that payments arrive on time. For regular customers, the company can create internal settlement accounts to account for the transfer of funds for several orders at once.

As a rule, enterprises form a specialized service (department) that provides all the necessary document flow on order.

Calculation of expenses and prime cost of each product.

Small-scale production must have high competitive advantages in order to survive and operate successfully in a market environment. Among the rivals of such companies are both large-scale representatives of the sphere and other small-scale enterprises.

As for the cost of a commodity unit, in small-scale production it is higher than the cost of producing the same product with a mass method. That is why, in order to ensure competitive prices, you need to know exactly how much money is spent on the manufacture of each product, understand the cost structure, and also be able to manage the price of finished products.

It is possible to accurately calculate the cost price and cost structure only after processing the design documents, creating a technological route and clarifying the price of materials. It is impossible to get such a calculation in a short time. In addition, in this case, the time costs of technologists and the warehouse are necessary, and this, in turn, is production costs. To quickly establish the order amount, you need to use estimating algorithms that provide a cost estimate for the project with a fairly a high degree accuracy. The bid price calculated according to such schemes is preliminary. Already in the process of placing an order, the contractor specifies it, based on the full calculation of the cost of expenses.

The basis for determining the preliminary budget of the project is a questionnaire. This is an order configurator that allows you to set the main parameters that determine the price of products. The main problem in calculating the preliminary cost is the development of empirical algorithms that are individual for each type of product. The complexity of the calculations depends on the agreements with specific customers, which must be taken into account.

The complexity of planning small-scale production.

The development of a production plan for high-volume/mass production is a linear function, since each equipment in the process chain is used once. In small-scale production, each product range has an individual creation scheme. If there are several products in operation at the same time, then the routes of their manufacture intersect. In addition, the production process can be built in such a way that for the next technological operation, the part is re-supplied for processing to the same machine equipment for small-scale production. As a result, so-called return flows appear in the material flow structure of parts, and it becomes much more difficult to plan an industrial process. This nuance was not taken into account in existing models flow automatic lines, because in the framework of mass production here, in order to ensure high performance, they use an additional piece of equipment.

If a large number of operations are attached to one workplace, an environment of frequently changing production conditions at workplaces is created. This is expressed (for example, in sections machining) that periodically there is a need to reconfigure the equipment, other tools and devices are needed, grades and grades of the processed material change at the workplace, new work is constantly mastered according to other schedules, and specifications. All this requires additional time, which should be taken into account when creating a production plan. And the best option is a grouping during the planning of similar orders. This reduces the amount of reconfiguration required.

If technological routes for product development intersect, equipment for small-scale production is used unevenly. In front of some machines, queues of parts awaiting processing are accumulating, while others, in the routes of parts or after a loaded machine, are idle. Due to the fact that the technologies for creating certain products differ and the incoming flow of orders fluctuates, at different times absolutely any equipment can be extremely in demand. If such a situation arises, buying machines for small-scale production can become a pointless undertaking, since other equipment will be overloaded during the implementation of other orders.

Due to the fact that several projects are being carried out simultaneously, the technological process takes a long time, numerous machines for small-scale production are used to create products, the planning problem cannot be solved by enumeration of probable options. This may take an indefinite amount of time. To calculate the production plan, one should use empirical algorithms that take into account the characteristics of a particular production, or use estimated production scheduling.

​​The complexity of the production process.

Since high demands are placed on the accuracy of creating products, it is imperative to take into account the likelihood of defects in the production process. The more sensitive an order is to deviations, the greater the risk of rejects due to reduced manufacturing tolerances. Accounting for defects in the production of products is carried out in coefficients that increase the number of units that are put into production.

Let's compare mass and small-scale production. If we consider large-scale / mass production, then the defect is compensated by a significant volume of output. If this is a small-scale production of parts, non-conformity can cause significant financial damage. When a marriage occurs within the framework of a custom-made industrial process, the volume of manufactured products should be recalculated for all further operations. If the number of defective products exceeds the established standards, it is necessary to create an internal order for the production of the missing units. At the same time, the manufacture of these products goes through a full technological cycle. This operation is called "restart", and the cost of it is a production cost. Tracking the volume of defective products, recalculating products for manufacturing due to marriage, urgent “restart” - all this serious problems, if we consider small-scale production.

The cost of processing a product in small-scale production is much higher than in mass production, and therefore it is often more expedient from an economic point of view to modify defective products. The correction of non-conformity requires additional time expenditures of personnel and loading of equipment, as well as other resources. All this also leads to the fact that there are "flows of return" of products coming for revision, and it is necessary to adjust the technological process.

If complex products are made taking into account the probable marriage, if it does not happen, surpluses appear. To reduce costs, some production operations on the resulting excess units can be omitted. In this case, the surplus is a semi-finished product. To account for such products and work with them, you need a specialized warehouse, thanks to which you can:

• take surplus goods under a new order, thereby reducing the volume of products for release. Here you need an outfit to finalize the surplus;
• reserve the planned surplus for other new orders. In this case, you need to keep track of several orders all the time in terms of the appearance of marriage in them.

If you control and work with surpluses, you can reduce the production cost of output.

Each type of production has its own specifics when creating products, and it should definitely be taken into account. Otherwise, the organization of effective management of small-scale production becomes a difficult task. All the nuances must be taken into account when automating industrial processes.

​​Control over the production of each order.

Small-scale production implies mandatory control of the implementation of each order. It is necessary at any time to know the state of a particular project, what technological operation is currently being carried out, what difficulties have arisen during production.

To individualize each application in the enterprise, you can use barcodes for identification. If bar scanners are installed at each workplace in the workshop, it will be possible to dispatch orders in real time.

For each bar scanner, its working operation or list of actions is configured - when using one bar scanner at the site. If the barcode scanner is tied to a technological procedure, not only the order is automatically identified, but also the specific manipulation being performed. Thanks to this, project dispatching is carried out in the shortest possible time. Entering information about the production of an order allows you to monitor the state of the production process according to a number of criteria:

• all current orders;
• application of a specific client;
• specific project.

At the same time, it is very important how loaded the equipment for small-scale production is in the context of technological processes.

In addition to the fact that the enterprise needs to monitor the progress of client agreements, it is also necessary to monitor the preparation of the required documentation for orders and their shipments. When filling out an application, it is necessary to reserve materials for it, and already write them off when completed. That is, you need to fix each stage of the order, along with all the adjustments. Only the transparency of all processes will ensure effective implementation.

Reorganization of work of warehouses.

If this is a small-scale production, there are significant changes in the operation of storage facilities. Warehouse does not work production plan, but is based on the requirements for the purchase of materials for all orders.

If we consider small-scale production, the warehouse functions as follows:

1. Tracks and maintains the minimum balance for frequently used materials. The calculation of the minimum balances is based on the two-week production needs for these materials.
2. When a new order arrives, the material in stock is reserved.
3. If the material is missing or not enough, a demand for its purchase is made.
4. Taking into account the requirements for the warehouse, suppliers are selected and orders are formed for them.
5. For new orders, the current cost of the material used is specified (if the price has not changed within the last three months).
6. For materials that are rarely used or purchased only in batches, the cost of the batch will be agreed with the customer.
7. When new materials arrive at the warehouse, they are reserved for current requirements.
8. When a material is needed for a manufacturing process, it is received from the warehouse and scrapped against a specific order.
9. Write-off of consumables used in production is carried out in proportion to the volume for each order for which they were used.

If the warehouse works according to this scheme, then all processes within the framework of project implementation become clear and understandable.

Accounting for small-scale production

Manufacturing operations are a factor that is quite difficult to take into account. It is necessary to fix the costs related to the cost of manufactured goods (services, works) in order to form the final indicators of the production activity of the enterprise.

It is necessary to calculate production costs completely and on time in order to:

• accept management decisions, the purpose of which is to increase income;
• efficient use of production resources;
• reduce the cost of manufactured goods.

Calculation is the calculation of expenses in money equivalent for the production of one or more commodity units.

At the moment, many regulations regulate the order manufacturing plant. Among them:

• PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization";
• PBU "On accounting and financial reporting in the Russian Federation";
• Chart of accounts for financial and economic activities of organizations and instructions for its use;
• other regulations.

Alas, this documentation does not give a clear idea of ​​​​how to keep records of production operations and does not reflect the features of production activities. Most of the instructions for this industry regarding the accounting of production costs were developed on the basis of the Regulation “On the composition of costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) included in the cost of products (works, services), and on the procedure for forming financial results taken into account when taxing profits” (approved by Resolution No. 552 of August 5, 1992). It has not been used since the entry into force of Chapter 25 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.

In this regard, enterprises themselves are forced to establish the procedure for fixing production costs, which should be fixed in accounting policy companies for accounting purposes.

At the same time, on the basis of the Letter of the Ministry of Finance dated April 29, 2002 No. 16-00-13 / 03, until the completion of work on the formation and approval by ministries and departments of the relevant industry regulatory documentation on the organization of accounting for production costs, calculation of the cost of goods (works, services ), on the basis of the Accounting Reform Program, enterprises, as before, are required to rely on the current industry instructions (instructions), taking into account the requirements, principles and rules for the recognition of indicators in accounting, disclosure of data in financial statements in accordance with the already adopted designated Program regulatory documentation by bookkeeping.

Let's talk about how accounting should be kept in small-scale production.

For accounting purposes, the costs associated with the release of products, the performance of work and the provision of services are attributed to the costs of the main activities (paragraph 5 of PBU 10/99).

Based on paragraph 7 of PBU 10/99, the costs of ordinary types of production activities include the costs of purchasing:

• raw materials;
• materials;
• goods;
• other inventories.

We are talking about values ​​that are directly involved in the process of processing inventories for:

• manufacturing products;
• performance of work;
• provision of services.

The generated costs should be divided into the following groups:

• material costs;
• labor costs;
• deductions for social needs;
• depreciation;
• other expenses.

Important! When organizing cost accounting by expense items, it is necessary to establish and display in the accounting policy for accounting purposes a list of expense items (paragraph 8 of PBU 10/99).

According to the methods of attributing costs to the cost of products, works, services, the company's costs are:

• direct (main);
• indirect (overhead).

Direct costs are costs directly related to the release of a certain type of product (work, service). These include costs for:

• depreciation of technical means involved in production;
• raw materials and materials for the manufacture of products;
• semi-finished products own production;
• the wages of the personnel involved in the production, in cases where it is possible to establish what kind of product the employee produces.

In addition, direct costs include the costs associated with auxiliary production and service farms.

Indirect costs are costs that are not directly related to the production of specific products (services, works). These are general production and general business costs. These may include costs for:

• equipment depreciation;
• the wages of personnel who are either not employed at all in production, or in the case when it is impossible to establish for which types of products the labor force of employees was used;
• payment for utilities;
• rental of premises and equipment;
• other expenses of general production and general economic purposes.

Since the enterprise independently determines what direct and indirect costs consist of, as well as the procedure for attributing them to cost, in the accounting policy in the section " Cost accounting procedure” can reflect, for example, the following provisions:

1. Production costs are accumulated on account 20 "Main production" with analytical accounting by types of nomenclature, categories of production costs, divisions.

2. General production costs are accumulated on account 25 "General production costs" and at the end of the month are written off to account 20 "Main production". In this case, the costs are distributed by nomenclature positions.

3. Direct costs associated with the manufacture and sale of products of own production, as well as the performance of work and the provision of services, are:

• the actual price of raw materials and (or) materials that are used in the manufacture of products (performance of work, provision of services) and (or) underlie them or act as an integral component in the production of products (performance of work, provision of services);
• the price of semi-finished products of own production, which are used in production;
• the price of finished products that are used in the production process;
• general business expenses.

4. General production costs associated with the manufacture and sale of products of own production, as well as the performance of work and the provision of services, are:

• the actual price of raw materials and (or) materials used for general production purposes;
• depreciation deductions for fixed assets for production and general production purposes;
• depreciation deductions for intangible assets of production and general production purposes;
• purchase price and finished products used in the production process;
• production and general production costs for work and services of third-party enterprises;
• the cost of wages to the main production workers and insurance deductions;
• costs of upcoming periods in the part that relates to general production costs.

5. Work in progress in the case of an enterprise of mass and serial type is reflected in the balance sheet at the standard (planned) production cost (in accordance with clause 64 of the Regulation on Accounting and Reporting).

6. General production (indirect) costs are accounted for in the debit of account 25 "General production costs" in proportion to the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services).

7. Management costs, which are taken into account in the debit of account 26 "General business expenses", at the end of the reporting period are not distributed among the objects of calculation as conditionally fixed. They are written off directly to the debit of account 90 "Sales of products (works, services)" with distribution between product categories in proportion specific gravity sales proceeds (based on the Chart of Accounts).

8. Commercial and administrative costs are attributed to the cost of goods sold, goods and services (based on paragraph 9 of PBU 10/99 and the Chart of Accounts):

• in full in the reporting year, they are recognized as expenses for ordinary activities. Exceptions are expenses aimed at generating income in the future;
• expenses that relate to the receipt of income in the future are taken into account as part of deferred expenses. Write-off occurs when the revenue appears, to achieve which they were directed;
• the enterprise, at its discretion, determines whether or not to take into account commercial and administrative costs as part of the expenses of the coming periods, and also to attribute them to current costs or not.

Based on paragraph 17 of PBU 10/99, accounting costs must be taken into account regardless of whether the company wanted to make a profit or other income or not. The form of expenditure (cash, natural) also does not matter.

Both direct and indirect costs for accounting purposes are recognized during the reporting period in which they are incurred.

Based on the Chart of Accounts, the costs associated with the release of products are recorded on account 20 "Main production".

If we are considering small-scale production, in this case it is better to use the order-based method of calculating production costs. This method also applies when:

• there is a single small-scale production;
• work is carried out on the basis of work contracts (paid services);
• technically complex products are produced (shipbuilding, aircraft industry, etc.);
• products are produced that have a long production cycle (construction, power engineering, etc.).

When the order method is used, the cost accounting is carried out in accordance with the estimate (calculation) attached to a specific order or group of homogeneous orders.

For each contract (or a group of them), an estimate (calculation card) is drawn up. The enterprise, at its discretion, develops forms of estimates and calculation cards with their subsequent approval in its accounting policy.

The estimate (calculation card) should include:

• the name together with the description of products, production services (works);
• a list of raw materials, materials and other costs required for the manufacture of an order.

The costs for each of the projects are recorded as the product goes through the stages of production.

If the order method is used, the costs are taken into account on account 20 for each open order in a separate order.

Direct costs directly related to the implementation of the project are reflected in the debit of account 20 in correspondence with the cost accounting accounts. In doing so, the wiring is performed:

debit bills 20bills 10 / 60 / 70 / 68 / 69 / others- reflected direct costs for the manufacture of order No. 3 for OOO Fluger (raw materials and services, services of third-party enterprises related to the manufacture of the order, payment for the labor activity of workers employed in production, etc.).

account 25"General production expenses" are debited to the debit of account 20 "Main production" every month.

Costs that are taken into account account 26"General expenses", debited or debited every month bills 20"Main production", or in debit accounts 90.2 sub-account "Cost of sales" based on the approved accounting policy.

At the same time, these costs are divided between orders in proportion to the cost distribution base. The selected distribution base is fixed in the accounting policy for accounting purposes (paragraph 7 of PBU 1/2008).

The company can choose one of following methods distributions:

Issue volume. Expenses are distributed in proportion to the volume of products produced during the current month and services provided, expressed in quantitative terms.

Planned production cost. Costs are distributed in proportion to the planned price of goods produced during the current month, services provided.

Salary. Expenses are distributed in proportion to the cost of wages for the main workers employed in production.

material costs. Costs are distributed in proportion to material costs, which are reflected in the items of production costs and are their component.

Direct costs. Distribution in proportion to direct costs:

• the costs of the main and auxiliary production for accounting;
• direct costs of the main and auxiliary production;
• overhead direct costs for tax accounting. About how dividing expenses into direct and indirect reduces income tax,

Separate items of direct costs. The distribution is carried out in proportion to all direct costs by cost items.

Revenue. The distribution is proportional to the proceeds from each type of product (work, service).

If these are general production and general business expenses, then you can stop at the distribution method, detailing up to the industrial site and expense item. This is necessary if for different types costs need to apply their methods of distribution.

According to a similar scheme, it is possible to establish a general principle of distribution for all costs that are recorded in one account or in one section.

When indirect costs are related to the cost of products, the following posting is made:

debit bills 20"Main production" credit accounts 25 (26)– taken into account as part of the production costs for the execution of order No. 3 for OOO Fluger general production (general business) expenses.

The type of production is determined by a complex characteristic of the technical, organizational and economic features of production, due to the breadth of the range, regularity, stability and volume of output. The main indicator characterizing the type of production is the coefficient of fixing operations Kz. The coefficient of consolidation of operations for a group of jobs is defined as the ratio of the number of all different technological operations performed or to be performed during the month to the number of jobs:

where Kopi is the number of operations performed at the i-th workplace;

Kr.m - the number of jobs on the site or in the shop.

There are three types of production: single, serial, mass.

Single production characterized by a small volume of production of identical products, re-manufacturing and repair of which, as a rule, is not provided. The pinning ratio for a single production is usually higher than 40.

Mass production characterized by the manufacture or repair of products in periodic batches. Depending on the number of products in a batch or series and the value of the coefficient of consolidation of operations, small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale production is distinguished.

For small batch production the coefficient of fixing operations from 21 to 40 (inclusive), for medium-scale production - from 11 to 20 (inclusive), for large-scale production - from 1 to 10 (inclusive).

Mass production It is characterized by a large volume of output of products that are continuously manufactured or repaired for a long time, during which one work operation is performed at most workplaces. The coefficient of fixing operations for mass production is assumed to be 1.

Consider the technical and economic characteristics of each type of production.

Single and close to it small-scale production are characterized by the manufacture of parts of a large range at workplaces that do not have a specific specialization. This production must be sufficiently flexible and adapted to the execution of various production orders.

Technological processes in the conditions of single production are developed on an enlarged basis in the form of route maps for the processing of parts for each order; sections are equipped with universal equipment and tooling, which ensures the manufacture of a wide range of parts. The wide variety of jobs that many workers have to perform requires them to have different professional skills, so highly skilled general workers are used in operations. In many areas, especially in pilot production, a combination of professions is practiced.

Organization of production in the conditions of single production has its own characteristics. Due to the variety of parts, the order and methods of their processing, production sites are built according to the technological principle with the arrangement of equipment into homogeneous groups. With this organization of production, the parts in the manufacturing process pass through various sections. Therefore, when transferring them to each subsequent operation (section), it is necessary to carefully consider the issues of quality control of processing, transportation, and determining jobs for the next operation. Peculiarities operational planning and management consist in timely picking and fulfillment of orders, monitoring the progress of each detail in operations, ensuring the systematic loading of sites and jobs. Great difficulties arise in the organization of material and technical supply. A wide range of manufactured products, the use of enlarged consumption rates of materials create difficulties in uninterrupted supply, which is why enterprises accumulate large stocks of materials, and this, in turn, leads to the deadening of working capital.

Features of the organization of unit production affect economic performance. For enterprises with a predominance of a single type of production, relatively high labor intensity of products and a large volume of work in progress due to the long periods of storage of parts between operations are characteristic. The cost structure of products is characterized by a high share of wage costs. This share is usually 20-25%.

The main possibilities for improving the technical and economic indicators of a single production are associated with its approximation in terms of technical and organizational level to the serial one. The use of serial production methods is possible with a narrowing of the range of manufactured parts for general machine-building applications, unification of parts and assemblies, which makes it possible to proceed to the organization of subject areas; expansion of constructive continuity to increase the batches of launch parts; grouping parts that are similar in design and manufacturing order to reduce the time for preparation of production and improve the use of equipment.

Mass production is characterized by the manufacture of a limited range of parts in batches, repeated at regular intervals. This allows you to use along with the universal special equipment. When designing technological processes, they provide for the order of execution and equipment for each operation.

The following features are typical for the organization of serial production. Shops, as a rule, have in their composition subject-closed areas, equipment on which is placed in the course of a typical technological process. As a result, relatively simple connections between workplaces arise and prerequisites are created for organizing the direct-flow movement of parts in the process of their manufacture.

Subject specialization of sites makes it expedient to process a batch of parts in parallel on several machines performing successive operations. As soon as the previous operation finishes processing the first few parts, they are transferred to the next operation before the end of the processing of the entire batch. Thus, in the conditions of mass production, it becomes possible to organize the production process in parallel-sequential organization. This is his distinguishing feature.

The use of one or another form of organization in the conditions of mass production depends on the labor intensity and volume of output of the products assigned to the site. So, large, labor-intensive parts, manufactured in large quantities and having a similar technological process, are assigned to one site with the organization of variable-flow production on it. Parts of medium size, multi-operational and less labor-intensive are combined in batches. If their launch into production is regularly repeated, batch processing areas are organized. Small, low-labor parts, such as normalized studs, bolts, are fixed to one specialized section. In this case, the organization of direct-flow production is possible.

Serial production enterprises are characterized by significantly lower labor intensity and cost of manufacturing products than in a single one. In serial production, compared to single-piece production, products are processed with fewer interruptions, which reduces the volume of work in progress.

From the point of view of the organization, the main reserve for increasing labor productivity in mass production is the introduction of mass production methods.

Mass production is characterized by the greatest specialization and is characterized by the manufacture of a limited range of parts in large quantities. Mass production workshops are equipped with the most advanced equipment, which allows almost complete automation of the manufacture of parts. Automatic production lines are widely used here.

Technological processes of machining are developed more carefully, by transitions. Each machine is assigned a relatively small number of operations, which ensures the most complete loading of jobs. The equipment is located in a chain along the technological process of individual parts. Workers specialize in performing one or two operations. Details are transferred from operation to operation piece by piece. In the conditions of mass production, the importance of organizing interoperational transportation increases, Maintenance work places. Constant monitoring of the state of the cutting tool, fixtures, equipment is one of the conditions for ensuring the continuity of the production process, without which the rhythm of work on sites and in workshops is inevitably disturbed. The need to maintain a given rhythm in all stages of production is becoming a distinctive feature of the organization of processes in mass production.

Mass production provides the most complete use of equipment, a high overall level of labor productivity, and the lowest cost of manufacturing products. In table. 4.1 presents data on a comparative characteristic various types production.

Table 4.1 Comparative characteristics of various types of production

Forms of organization of production. The form of organization of production is a certain combination in time and space of the elements of the production process with an appropriate level of its integration, expressed by a system of stable relationships.

Various temporal and spatial structural constructions form a set of basic forms of organization of production. Temporary structure of the organization of production is determined by the composition of the elements of the production process and the order of their interaction in time. According to the type of temporary structure, forms of organization are distinguished with sequential, parallel and parallel-sequential transfer of objects of labor in production.

Form of organization of production with the sequential transfer of objects of labor is a combination of elements of the production process, which ensures the movement of workpieces in all production areas in batches of arbitrary size. The objects of labor for each subsequent operation are transferred only after the completion of the processing of the entire batch at the previous operation. This form is the most flexible in relation to changes that occur in the production program, allows you to fully use the equipment, which makes it possible to reduce the cost of its purchase. The disadvantage of this form of organization of production lies in the relatively long duration of the production cycle, since each part, before performing the next operation, lies in anticipation of processing the entire batch.

Form of organization of production with parallel transfer of objects of labor is based on such a combination of elements of the production process, which allows you to start, process and transfer objects of labor from operation to operation piece by piece and without waiting. This organization of the production process leads to a reduction in the number of parts being processed, a reduction in the need for space required for warehousing and aisles. Its disadvantage is the possible downtime of equipment (jobs) due to differences in the duration of operations.

Form of organization of production with parallel-sequential transfer of objects of labor is intermediate between serial and parallel forms and partially eliminates their inherent disadvantages. Products from operation to operation are transferred by transport parties. This ensures the continuity of use of equipment and work force, partially parallel passage of a batch of parts through the operations of the technological process is possible.

The spatial structure of the organization of production is determined by the amount of technological equipment concentrated on the work site (the number of jobs) and its location relative to the direction of movement of objects of labor in the surrounding space. Depending on the number of technological equipment (jobs), there are one-tier production system and the corresponding structure of a separate workplace and multi-link system with workshop, linear or cellular structure. Possible options for the spatial structure of the organization of production are presented in fig. 4.1. The workshop structure is characterized by the creation of sites where equipment (jobs) are located parallel to the flow of workpieces, which implies their specialization on the basis of technological homogeneity. In this case, a batch of parts arriving at the site is sent to one of the free workplaces, where the necessary processing cycle goes through, after which it is transferred to another site (to the workshop).

On a site with a linear spatial structure equipment (jobs) is located along the technological process and a batch of parts processed at the site is transferred from one job to another sequentially.

Cellular structure of production organization combines the features of linear and workshop. The combination of spatial and temporal structures of the production process at a certain level of integration of partial processes determines various forms of organization of production: technological, subject, direct-flow, point, integrated (Fig. 4.2). Consider character traits each of them.

Technological form of organization of the production process characterized by a shop structure with a consistent transfer of objects of labor. This form of organization is widespread in machine-building plants, because it provides maximum equipment utilization in small-scale production and is adapted to frequent changes in the technological process. At the same time, the use of a technological form of organization of the production process has a number of negative consequences. A large number of parts and their repeated movement during processing lead to an increase in the volume of work in progress and an increase in the number of intermediate storage points. A significant part of the production cycle is the loss of time due to complex inter-sectional communication.

Rice. 4.1. Variants of the spatial structure of the production process

Subject form of organization of production has a cellular structure with a parallel-sequential (sequential) transfer of objects of labor in production. On the subject area, as a rule, all the equipment necessary for processing a group of parts from the beginning to the end of the technological process is installed. If the technological processing cycle is closed within the area, it is called subject-closed.

Subject construction of plots ensures straightness and reduces the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of parts. In comparison with the technological form, the subject one allows to reduce the total cost of transporting parts, the need for production space per unit of output. However, this form of organization of production also has disadvantages. The main one is that when determining the composition of the equipment installed on the site, the need for certain types of processing of parts comes to the fore, which does not always provide a full load of the equipment.

In addition, the expansion of the range of manufactured products, its renewal require periodic redevelopment of production sites, changes in the structure of the equipment fleet. The direct-flow form of production organization is characterized by a linear structure with a piece-by-piece transfer of objects of labor. This form ensures the implementation of a number of organization principles: specialization, direct flow, continuity, parallelism. Its application leads to a reduction in the duration of the production cycle, more efficient use labor force due to greater specialization of labor, reducing the volume of work in progress.

Rice. 4.2. Forms of organization of production

With a point form of organization of production All work is done in one place. The product is manufactured where its main part is located. An example is the assembly of a product with the worker moving around it. The organization of point production has a number of advantages: it provides the possibility of frequent changes in the design of products and the sequence of processing, the manufacture of products of various nomenclature in the quantity determined by the needs of production; costs associated with changing the location of equipment are reduced, production flexibility is increased.

Integrated form of production organization involves the combination of main and auxiliary operations into a single integrated production process with a cellular or linear structure with serial, parallel or parallel-serial transfer of objects of labor in production. In contrast to the existing practice of separate design of the processes of warehousing, transportation, management, processing in areas with an integrated form of organization, it is required to link these partial processes into a single production process. This is achieved by combining all workplaces with the help of an automatic transport and storage complex, which is a set of interconnected, automatic and storage devices, computer equipment designed to organize the storage and movement of objects of labor between individual workplaces.

The management of the production process here is carried out using a computer, which ensures the functioning of all elements of the production process at the site according to the following scheme: search for the necessary workpiece in the warehouse - transportation of the workpiece to the machine - processing - return of the part to the warehouse. To compensate for deviations in time during transportation and processing of parts, buffer warehouses of inter-operational and insurance reserves are created at individual workplaces. The creation of integrated production sites is associated with relatively high one-time costs caused by the integration and automation of the production process.

The economic effect in the transition to an integrated form of production organization is achieved by reducing the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing parts, increasing the loading time of machine tools, and improving the regulation and control of production processes. On fig. 4.3 shows the layout of equipment in areas with various form organization of production.

Rice. 4.3. Layouts of equipment (workplaces) at sites with various forms of production organization: a) technological; b) subject; c) straight-through: d) point (for the case of assembly); e) integrated

Depending on the ability to change over to the production of new products, the above forms of organization of production can be conditionally divided into flexible (changeable) and rigid (non-changeable). Rigid forms of production organization involve the processing of parts of the same name.

Changes in the range of manufactured products and the transition to the production of a structurally new series of products require redevelopment of the site, replacement of equipment and tooling. The in-line form of organization of the production process is among the rigid ones.

Flexible forms make it possible to ensure the transition to the production of new products without changing the composition of the components of the production process with little time and labor.

Most widespread in machine-building enterprises At present, such forms of organization of production as flexible spot production, flexible subject and in-line forms have been received.

Flexible spot production implies the spatial structure of a separate workplace without further transfer of objects of labor in the production process. The part is completely machined in one position. Adaptability to the release of new products is carried out by changing the operating state of the system. A flexible subject form of production organization is characterized by the possibility of automatic processing of parts within a certain range without interruption for readjustment. The transition to the production of new products is carried out by readjusting technical means, reprogramming the control system. A flexible subject form covers the area of ​​sequential and parallel-sequential transfer of objects of labor in combination with a combined spatial structure.

Flexible rectilinear form of production organization It is characterized by a quick readjustment for the processing of new parts within the specified range by replacing tooling and fixtures, reprogramming the control system. It is based on an in-line arrangement of equipment that strictly corresponds to the technological process with a piece-by-piece transfer of objects of labor.

The development of forms of organization of production in modern conditions Under influence scientific and technological progress Significant changes are taking place in the engineering and technology of mechanical engineering, due to the mechanization and automation of production processes. This creates objective prerequisites for the development of new forms of organization of production. One of these forms, which has been used in the implementation of flexible automation tools in the production process, is a block-modular form.

Creation of industries with a block-modular form of production organization is carried out by concentrating on the site the entire complex of technological equipment necessary for the continuous production of a limited range of products, and by combining a group of workers at the outlet end products with the transfer to them of part of the functions of planning and managing production at the site. The economic basis for the creation of such industries are collective forms labor organization. Work in this case is based on the principles of self-government and collective responsibility for the results of work. The main requirements for the organization of the production and labor process in this case are: the creation of an autonomous system of technical and instrumental maintenance of production; achieving continuity of the production process based on the calculation of the rational need for resources, indicating intervals and delivery times; ensuring conjugation in terms of power of machining and assembly departments; taking into account the established norms of manageability when determining the number of employees; selection of a group of workers, taking into account full interchangeability. The implementation of these requirements is possible only with a comprehensive solution of issues of labor organization, production and management. The transition to a block-modular form of production organization is carried out in several stages. At the stage of pre-project survey, a decision is made on the advisability of creating such units in given production conditions. An analysis of the structural and technological homogeneity of products is carried out and an assessment is made of the possibility of completing "families" of parts for processing within the framework of a production cell. Then the possibility of concentrating the entire complex of technological operations for the production of a group of parts in one area is determined; the number of workplaces adapted for the introduction of group processing of parts is established; the composition and content of the basic requirements for the organization of the production and labor process are determined, based on the planned level of automation.

At the stage of structural design, the composition and relationships of the main components of the production process are determined.

At the stage of organizational and economic design, technical and organizational solutions are combined, ways are outlined for implementing the principles of collective contracting and self-government in autonomous brigades. The second direction in the development of forms of organization of production is the transition to the assembly of complex units by the bench method, the rejection of conveyor assembly due to the organization of a mini-flow. For the first time, the mini-flow was introduced by the Swedish automobile company Volvo.

Production here is organized as follows. The entire assembly process is divided into several large steps. At each stage there are working groups of 15-25 assemblers. The team is located along the outer walls of a quadrilateral or pentagon, inside which there are cash registers with the parts necessary at this stage of assembly. Machines are assembled on self-propelled platforms, moving through enlarged operations within a given stage. Each worker completes his operation completely. The flow principle with such an assembly system is completely preserved, since the total number of identical stands operating in parallel is such that the average specified flow cycle is maintained. The movement of platforms with assembled machines from one stage of assembly to another is monitored by the dispatch service with the help of four computers.

Another solution for organizing in-line production is to keep the conveyor system including preparatory operations. In this case, the assemblers, at their own discretion, work either on the main or on the preparatory operations. These approaches to the development of the in-line form of organization of production not only ensure the growth of labor productivity and improve quality, but also give the assemblers a sense of job satisfaction and eliminate the monotony of labor.

Methods of organizing production. Methods of organizing production are a set of methods, techniques and rules for the rational combination of the main elements of the production process in space and time at the stages of functioning, design and improvement of the organization of production.

Method of organizing individual production used in conditions of a single production or its production in small batches and implies: lack of specialization in the workplace; the use of universal equipment, its location in groups according to its functional purpose; sequential movement of parts from operation to operation in batches. The conditions for servicing workplaces differ in that workers almost constantly use one set of tools and a small number of universal devices; only periodic replacement of blunt or worn tools is required. In contrast, the delivery of parts to the workplace and the mandrel of parts during the issuance of new and acceptance of finished work occur several times during the shift. Therefore, there is a need for a flexible organization of transport services for workplaces.

Consider the main stages of organizing individual production.

Determining the types and number of machines needed to complete a given production program. When organizing individual production, it is difficult to accurately establish the range of products produced, therefore, approximate calculations of the required number of machines are acceptable. The calculation is based on the following indicators: product removal from a piece of equipment q; the number of machine hours required to process a set of parts for one product h. The accuracy of the aggregated calculations depends on how correctly the values ​​of the indicated indicators are determined. The estimated number of machines Sp is determined by the formula

where Sp j is the estimated number of machines according to j-th group equipment;

Q - annual volume of output, pieces; Kcm j is the coefficient of shift work for the j-th group of equipment; Fe j is the effective working time fund of one machine of the j-th group.

where tp is the standard time spent on repairs this equipment, % to the nominal fund; tp - standard time spent on adjustment, readjustment, relocation of this equipment,% of the nominal fund.

The nominal fund of the operating time of the machine depends on the number of calendar days D to and non-working days in the year D n, the adopted mode of shift work per day and is determined by the formula

where Tchs - the average number of hours of operation of the machine per day according to the accepted shift mode.

The accepted number of machines for each group of equipment is set by rounding the resulting value to the nearest integer so that the total number of machines does not go beyond the accepted number.

The equipment load factor is determined by the ratio of the estimated number of machines to the accepted one.

Coordination of the throughput capacity of individual sections in terms of power. The production capacity of a site equipped with the same type of equipment is determined as follows:

where Spr is the accepted amount of equipment; Кн.см - normative coefficient of equipment operation shift; K - the coefficient of compliance with the standards achieved in the base year for the site (workshop); Str - planned task to reduce labor intensity, standard hours.

The normative coefficient of shift operation of the equipment is determined based on the load of the installed equipment, as a rule, in a two-shift mode of operation, taking into account the normative coefficient that takes into account the time spent by machines in repair.

The conjugation of individual sections in terms of power is determined by the formula

where Km is the coefficient of contingency of sections in terms of power; Mu1, Mu2 are the capacities of the compared sections (the products of the 1st section are used to manufacture a unit of production of the 2nd section); Y1 - specific consumption of products of the 1st division.

Workplace organization. Features of the organization and maintenance of workplaces are as follows: setting up the machine before starting work, as well as installing tools at workplaces, is carried out by the workers themselves, while workplaces must be equipped with everything necessary to ensure continuous operation; transport of parts should be carried out without delay, there should not be an excessive stock of blanks at the workplace.

Development of site planning. For individual production, the planning of sites by type of work is typical. In this case, sections of homogeneous machines are created: turning, milling, etc. The sequence of sections on the workshop area is determined by the processing route for most types of parts. The layout should ensure the movement of parts over short distances and only in the direction that leads to the completion of the manufacture of the product.

Flow production method used in the manufacture of products of the same name or design range and involves a combination of the following special methods of organizational construction of the production process: the location of jobs along the technological process; specialization of each workplace in the performance of one of the operations; transfer of objects of labor from operation to operation by the piece or in small batches immediately after the end of processing; release rhythm, synchronism of operations; detailed study of the organization of maintenance of workplaces.

The flow method of organization can be used under the following conditions:

The volume of output is large enough and does not change over a long period of time;

The design of the product is manufacturable, individual components and parts are transportable, products can be divided into structural assembly units, which is especially important for organizing the flow at the assembly;

The time spent on operations can be set with sufficient accuracy, synchronized and reduced to a single value; provides a continuous supply to the workplace of materials, parts, assemblies; full loading of the equipment is possible.

The organization of in-line production is associated with a number of calculations and preparatory work. The starting point in the design of in-line production is the determination of the volume of output and the cycle of the flow. Tact is the time interval between the launch (or release) of two adjacent products on the line. It is determined by the formula

where Fd is the actual fund of the line operation time for a certain period (month, day, shift), taking into account losses for equipment repair and regulated breaks, min; N3 - launch program for the same period of time, pcs.

The reciprocal of the tact is called the pace of the line. When organizing in-line production, it is necessary to ensure such a pace in order to fulfill the production plan.

The next step in the organization of mass production is to determine the need for equipment. The calculation of the amount of equipment is carried out based on the number of jobs for the process operations:

where Cpi is the estimated number of jobs per process operation; ti - the rate of time for the operation, taking into account the installation, transportation and removal of parts, min.

The accepted number of workplaces Spri is determined by rounding the estimated number to the nearest whole number. At the same time, it is taken into account that at the design stage overload is allowed in the range of 10-12% for each workplace.

The load factor of jobs Kz is determined by the formula

To ensure the full load of the equipment and the continuity of the production process, in-line production, synchronization (alignment) of operations in time is carried out.

Ways to synchronize operations on metal cutting machines

Rationalization of the processing method. In many cases, it is possible to increase the productivity of the machine by: changing the cutting conditions, aimed at reducing the machine time; simultaneous processing of several parts; elimination of additional time spent on auxiliary movements of the working bodies of the machine, etc.

Creation of interoperational backlogs and use of low-performance equipment in an additional shift. This method of synchronization is associated with the search for additional space and an increase in the size of work in progress. The value of the interoperational backlog Zmo is equal to the difference in output at adjacent operations over a period of time T, its maximum value can be calculated by the formula

where T is the period of work on related operations with a constant number of working machines, min; Ci, Ci +1 - the number of pieces of equipment employed in related operations during the period T; ti, ti +1 - norms of time for adjacent operations.

Transfer of part of the workpieces to other machines that are not part of the line. If parts are likely to accumulate on the production line due to exceeding the cycle time, it is advisable to process them on another machine outside this area. This machine should be positioned so that it serves not one, but two or three production lines. Such an organization of in-line production is expedient, provided that the machine is sufficiently productive and the time spent on its readjustment is small.

Ways to synchronize assembly operations. Differentiation of operations . If the operating time norm is larger and not a multiple of a cycle and the assembly process is easily differentiated, it is possible to equalize the time spent on each operation by breaking it into smaller parts (transitions).

Operations concentration. If an operation is less than a measure in duration, minor operations or transitions configured in other operations are grouped into one.

Combination of operations. If the execution time of two adjacent operations is less than the cycle of the assembly line, you can organize the movement of the worker along with the product he is assembling, instructing him to perform several operations. After the synchronization of operations on the production line is achieved, a schedule of its work is drawn up, facilitating control over the use of equipment and workers. The rules for constructing a line schedule are set out in 12.6.

One of the main conditions for the continuous and rhythmic work of production lines is the organization of interoperational transport.

In flow production, vehicles are not only used to move products, but also serve to regulate the cycle of work and distribute objects of labor between parallel workplaces on the line.

Vehicles used in in-line production can be divided into driven and non-driven continuous and intermittent.

Most often, a variety of driven conveyor vehicles are used in flow conditions.

The speed of the conveyor belt during continuous movement is calculated in accordance with the cycle of the production line:

In the case of intermittent movement, the speed of the conveyor is determined by the formula

where lo is the distance between the centers of two adjacent workplaces (conveyor pitch), m; ttr - time of product transportation from one operation to another, min.

The choice of vehicles depends on the overall dimensions, the weight of the workpieces, the type and number of equipment, the magnitude of the cycle and the degree of synchronization of operations.

The design of the flow is completed by the development of a rational layout of the line. When planning, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements: provide convenient approaches to workplaces for repair and maintenance of the line; ensure continuous transportation of parts to various workplaces on the line; allocate sites for the accumulation of groundwork and approaches to them; to provide workplaces on the line for performing control operations.

Method of group organization of production used in the case of a limited range of structurally and technologically homogeneous products manufactured in repetitive batches. The essence of the method is to focus on the area various kinds technological equipment for processing a group of parts according to a unified technological process.

The characteristic features of such an organization of production are: detailed specialization of production units; launching parts into production in batches according to specially developed schedules; parallel-sequential passage of batches of parts for operations; execution on sites (in workshops) of a technologically completed set of works.

Consider the main stages of organizing group production. Structural and technological classification of parts. Despite the variety and difference in designs, machine parts have many similar structural, dimensional and technological features. Using a certain system, you can identify these common features and combine the details into certain groups. The commonality of the equipment used and the technological process, the uniformity of equipment can be the unifying qualities in the group.

The final acquisition of groups of parts assigned to a given section is carried out taking into account the labor intensity and volume of their production in terms of relative labor intensity Kd:

where Ni is the volume of output i-th part in the planned period, pcs.; koi number of operations for the technological process of processing the 1st part; tpcs ij - piece time i-th processing details for the j-th operation, min; Квj is the average coefficient of fulfillment of time norms.

This indicator is calculated for each detail of the analyzed population. The establishment of summary indicators for details of the last stage of the classification ensures their synthesis into groups according to the accepted feature.

Determining the need for equipment. It is necessary to estimate the required number of pieces of equipment for each group for the annual production program using formula (4.1).

The accepted number of machines is determined by rounding the obtained Spi value to the nearest integer. In this case, a 10% overload is allowed per machine.

Calculate the average equipment load factors for groups Kzj and the site as a whole Kz.y:

where Sprj is the accepted number of machines; h is the number of equipment groups in the area.

To ensure economically feasible loading, it is established taking into account intra-sectional, and for unique and special machines of inter-sectional cooperation - by transferring some part of the work from underloaded machines to machines of adjacent groups.

Determination of the number of production sites. In accordance with the number of machines in the workshop, the number of sections created in it is determined based on the controllability norm for masters.

When reorganizing existing workshops, the number of organized sections can be determined by the formula

where Ря - attendance number of the main workers, people; Cm - shift work mode; Well - the norm of controllability for the master, expressed by the number of jobs served by him; Cp - the average category of work on the site; Кз.о - the average number of operations assigned to one workplace of the site during the month.

When designing new workshops, due to the lack of data on the attendance number of the main workers, the number of sections is determined as follows:

Determination of the degree of isolation of production sites. Based on the analysis of the constructive-technological classification and Kd indicators, the selection and assignment of parts to sections is carried out. The efficiency of group production is determined by the degree of isolation of production sites.

The site is closed if all operations for processing groups of parts are performed on it (technological isolation) and the machines are not loaded with work on cooperation from other sections (industrial isolation).

The quantitative assessment of the degree of isolation is determined using indicators:

where Кт.з - coefficient of technological isolation; ТS is the complexity of manufacturing parts assigned to the site, h; Твi - processing time of the i-th part outside the site, h;

k is the number of parts whose processing cycle is not completed in this area; Кп.з - coefficient of industrial isolation; Tni is the processing time of the i-th part manufactured at the cooperation site; m - the number of parts transferred for processing to a given area through inter-sectional cooperation.

The integral indicator of the degree of closure Kint is calculated by the formula

When Kint = 1, the use of group production methods is most effective.

Development of a route map of the production process. The route map is a graphic representation of the sequence of all operations, including the movement of materials and their expectation.

Development of the layout of the workshop (section). The layout of the workshop (section) is drawn up taking into account the general direction of movement of materials. The necessary data is taken from the route map of the production process. The arrangement of equipment is carried out according to existing standards with maximum observance of straightness.

The method of organizing synchronized production. The basic principles of organizing synchronized production were developed in the 60s in Japanese company Toyota. The method of synchronized production integrates a number of traditional functions of organizing production processes: operational planning, inventory control, product quality management. The essence of the method is to abandon the production of products in large batches and create a continuous-line multi-subject production, in which at all stages of the production cycle the required assembly or part is delivered to the place of the subsequent operation exactly at the right time.

The goal is realized by creating group, multi-subject production lines and using the pull principle in managing the production process. The basic rules for organizing the production process in this case are:

Production of products in small batches;

Formation of a series of parts and the use of group technology in order to reduce the time for setting up equipment;

Transformation of storage materials and semi-finished products into buffer warehouses;

Transition from shop structure of production to subject-specialized subdivisions;

Transfer of management functions directly to the performers.

Of particular importance is the use of the pull principle in the control

With the traditional system, the part moves from one section to another (next in the technological process) and then to the finished product warehouse. This method of organizing production allows you to use workers and equipment, regardless of whether there is a demand for this type of product. In contrast, with a just-in-time system, the release schedule is set for the assembly department only. No part is made until it is needed in final assembly. Thus, the assembly department determines the quantity and order of launching parts into production.

The management of the production process is carried out according to the following principles: the volume, nomenclature and deadlines for completing the task are determined by the site (workplace) of the next stage of production; the release rhythm is set by the section that closes the production process; the resumption of the production cycle on the site begins only if the corresponding order is received; the worker, taking into account the deadlines for the delivery of parts (assembly units), orders the number of blanks (components) that is necessary to complete the received task; delivery of components (parts, assembly units) to the workplace is carried out on time and in quantities specified in the application; components, assemblies and parts are supplied by the time of assembly, individual parts - by the time of assembly of assemblies; necessary blanks - by the beginning of the manufacture of parts; only good products are transferred outside the site.

The functions of operational management of the production process are transferred to direct performers. A kanban card is used as a means of conveying information about the need for parts.

On fig. 4.4 shows a diagram of the organization of synchronized production. The movement of parts containers and kanban cards between sites is indicated by arrows in the diagram and is described below.

For example, the provision of the grinding site with workpieces is carried out in the following order.

As soon as the processing of the next batch of parts is completed at the grinding section, the empty container with the flow chart goes to the intermediate warehouse.

At the warehouse, the consumption card accompanying the container is removed, placed in a special box - a collector, and the container with the production card attached to it is fed to the drilling site.

The production card serves as a signal for the start of production. It plays the role of a dress, on the basis of which parts are made in the required quantity.

Parts for each completed order are loaded into an empty container, a production card is attached to it, and the full container is sent to an intermediate storage location.

From the intermediate warehouse, a container with blanks and an expense card, which is attached instead of a production card, goes to the grinding area.

The effectiveness of the system using kanban cards is ensured by observing the following rules:

the production of parts begins only if the production card is received. It is better to allow a suspension of production than to produce parts that are not needed;

each container has only one shipping card and one production card, the number of containers for each type of part is determined as a result of calculations.

Synchronized production method involves the introduction of a system of integrated quality management, which is based on the observance of certain principles, including: control of the production process; visibility of the results of measuring quality indicators; compliance with quality requirements; self-correction of marriage; checking 100% of products; continuous quality improvement.

Quality control during production in accordance with these principles is carried out at all stages of the production process, at each workplace.

To ensure the visibility of the results of measuring quality indicators, special stands are created. They explain to the worker, the management, what quality indicators are being checked, what are the current results of the check, what quality improvement measures are being developed and are being implemented, who has received quality awards, etc. In this case, the task of quality assurance comes first, and execution of the production plan - on the second.

The roles of departments and other subdivisions of technical control, their powers, the range of tasks to be solved, and the methods are changing. Responsibility for quality is redistributed and becomes universal: each organizational unit, within its competence, is responsible for quality assurance. Wherein primary responsibility falls on the manufacturers themselves.

To eliminate defects and ensure quality, a suspension of the production process is allowed. For example, at the Kawasaki plant in the United States, assembly lines are equipped with red and yellow warning lights. When difficulties arise, the worker turns on the yellow signal. If the defect is severe enough to require the line to be shut down, it lights a red signal.

The marriage is corrected by the workers or the team that allowed it, on their own. Each finished product is subject to control, and not a sample from a batch, and, where possible, components and parts.

The last principle is the gradual improvement of product quality. The challenge is to develop and implement quality improvement projects at each production site. All personnel, including specialists from individual services, take part in the development of such projects. Ensuring the quality of work and achieving the continuity of the production process in a synchronized production are due to preventive maintenance equipment, which includes recording the nature of the operation of each machine, carefully determining the need for maintenance and the frequency of its implementation.

Rice. 4.4. Scheme of the organization of synchronized production: I - route diagram of the production process; II - the scheme of movement of containers with "kanban" cards

Every day, a machine operator performs a number of operations to check his equipment. The beginning of the working day is preceded by lubrication, debugging of the machine, fixing and sharpening of tools. Maintaining order in the workplace is seen as a prerequisite for quality work. In domestic mechanical engineering, the implementation of the principles underlying the method of synchronized production is possible in several stages.

First stage. Creation of conditions to ensure uninterrupted supply of production with the necessary materials.

Second phase. Organization of the release of parts into production in batches, the size of which is determined by the needs of the assembly, based on a three- or five-day production of products.

The operational planning system in this case is simplified as much as possible. A workshop (section, brigade) is assigned a task: the quantity, the name of the parts that must be manufactured in one or another five-day or three-day period. The batch sizes, taking into account the applicability of parts and the five- or three-day production of machines, are determined by the production and dispatching bureau (PDB) of the workshop. The order of launch and release is determined by the master, the team. The dispatch service accepts and takes into account only those sets of parts that are provided for delivery during this period. Orders are also closed for payment. The chart can be added emergency requirements due to marriage or other reasons. Reducing the batch size can lead to losses in labor productivity, which will affect wages workers. Therefore, a raising factor to the price may be temporarily offered.

Third stage. Organization of work according to the principle: "The worker, the team, the workshop are responsible for the quality. A personal brand is for each worker."

Fourth stage. The introduction of an order in which the worker is busy doing his main job, provided that there is a need for it. Otherwise, it should be used where there is a shortage of labor.

If the task is not completed, the worker or team performs it in overtime. Each case of failure of the task must be analyzed with the obligatory participation of the worker, team, shop manager and specific culprits.

7.1. The production process and the principles of its organization

7.1.1. Definition of the manufacturing process

Industrial production is a complex process of converting raw materials, semi-finished materials and other objects of labor into finished products that meet the needs of the market.

Manufacturing process is the totality of all the actions of people and tools necessary for this enterprise for the manufacture of products.

The production process consists of the following processes:

main- these are technological processes during which changes in the geometric shapes, sizes and physico-chemical properties of products occur;
auxiliary- these are processes that ensure the uninterrupted flow of basic processes (manufacturing and repair of tools and equipment; repair of equipment; provision of all types of energy (electricity, heat, steam, water, compressed air, etc.));
serving- these are processes associated with the maintenance of both main and auxiliary processes and do not create products (storage, transportation, technical control, etc.).

In the conditions of automated, automatic and flexible integrated production, auxiliary and service processes are combined with the main ones to one degree or another and become an integral part of the production processes, which will be discussed in more detail later.

The structure of production processes is shown in fig. 7.1.

Rice. 7.1. Structure of production processes

Technological processes, in turn, are divided into phases.

Phase- a set of works, the performance of which characterizes the completion of a certain part of the technological process and is associated with the transition of the object of labor from one qualitative state to another.

In mechanical engineering and instrumentation, technological processes are mainly divided into three phases:

Procurement;
- processing;
- assembly.

The phase structure of technological processes is shown in fig. 7.2.

Rice. 7.2. Phase structure of technological processes

The technological process consists of technological actions, operations, sequentially performed on the given object of labor.

Operation- a part of the technological process performed at one workplace (machine, stand, unit, etc.), consisting of a series of actions on each object of labor or a group of jointly processed objects.

Operations that do not lead to a change in the geometric shapes, sizes, physical and chemical properties of objects of labor do not belong to technological operations (transport, loading and unloading, control, testing, picking, etc.).

Operations also differ depending on the means of labor used:

- manual performed without the use of machines, mechanisms and mechanized tools;
- machine-manual- are carried out with the help of machines or hand tools with the continuous participation of the worker;
- machine- performed on machines, installations, units with limited participation of the worker (for example, installation, fixing, starting and stopping the machine, unfastening and removing the part). The machine does the rest.
- automated- performed on automatic equipment or automatic lines.

Hardware processes characterized by the performance of machine and automatic operations in special units (furnaces, installations, baths, etc.).

7.1.2. Basic principles of the organization of the production process

Principles- these are the initial provisions on the basis of which the construction, functioning and development of the production process are carried out.

Compliance with the principles of the organization of the production process is one of the fundamental conditions for the efficiency of the enterprise.

The basic principles of the organization of the production process and their content are given in table. 7.1.

Table 7.1

Basic principles of the organization of the production process

No. p / p	Principles	Key points
1	The principle of proportionality	Proportional productivity per unit of time of all production departments of the enterprise (workshops, sections) and individual jobs.
2	Principle of differentiation	Separation of the production process for the manufacture of products of the same name between individual divisions of the enterprise (for example, the creation of production sites or workshops on a technological or subject basis)
3	Combination principle	The combination of all or part of diverse processes for the manufacture of a certain type of product within the same area, workshop, production
4	The principle of concentration	Concentration of the performance of certain production operations for the manufacture of technologically homogeneous products or the performance of functionally homogeneous work in separate areas, workplaces, in workshops and production facilities of the enterprise
5	The principle of specialization	Forms of the division of labor in the enterprise, in the shop. Assignment to each division of the enterprise of a limited range of works, operations of parts or products
6	The principle of universalization	Contrary to the principle of specialization. Each workplace or production unit is engaged in the manufacture of products and parts of a wide range or the performance of various production operations.
7	The principle of standardization	The principle of standardization in the organization of the production process is understood as the development, establishment and application of uniform conditions that ensure its best flow.
8	The principle of parallelism	Simultaneous execution of a technological process at all or some of its operations. The implementation of the principle significantly reduces the production cycle of the product
9	Direct flow principle	The requirement for rectilinear movement of objects of labor in the course of the technological process, that is, along the shortest path for the product to pass through all phases of the production process without returns in its movement
10	Continuity principle	Minimizing all interruptions in the production process of a particular product
11	The principle of rhythm	Release at equal intervals of time an equal number of products
12	The principle of automaticity	The maximum possible and economically expedient exemption of the worker from costs manual labor based on the use of automatic equipment
13	The principle of conformity of the forms of the production process its feasibility content	Formation of the production structure of the enterprise, taking into account the peculiarities of production and the conditions for its flow, giving the best economic indicators

The economic efficiency of the rational organization of the production process is expressed in reducing the duration of the production cycle of products, in reducing the costs of production, improving the use of fixed assets and increasing the turnover of working capital.

7.2. Types of productions and their technical and economic characteristics

Type of production- the totality of its organized, technical and economic features.

The type of production is determined by the following factors:

The range of manufactured products;
- volume of release;
- the degree of constancy of the range of manufactured products;
- the nature of the workload.

Depending on the level of concentration and specialization, three types of industries are distinguished:

Single;
- serial;
- mass.

Enterprises, sites and individual jobs are classified according to the types of production.

The type of production of an enterprise is determined by the type of production of the leading shop, and the type of production of the shop is determined by the characteristics of the site where the most critical operations are performed and the main part of production assets is concentrated.

The assignment of a plant to one or another type of production is conditional, since a combination of different types of production can take place at the enterprise and even in individual workshops.

Single production It is characterized by a wide range of manufactured products, a small volume of their production, and the performance of a wide variety of operations at each workplace.

AT serial production a relatively limited range of products is produced (in batches). As a rule, several operations are assigned to one workplace.

Mass production characterized by a narrow range and a large volume of products manufactured continuously for a long time at highly specialized workplaces.

The type of production is of decisive importance on the features of the organization of production, its economic indicators, the cost structure (in a single unit, the share of living labor is high, and in mass production, the cost of repair and maintenance needs and maintenance of equipment), different levels of equipment.

Comparison by factors of production types is given in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2

Characteristics of production types

No. p / p	Factors	Type of production
		singular	serial	massive
1	The range of manufactured products	Big	Limited	Malaya
2	Nomenclature constancy	Is absent	Available	Available
3	Issue volume	Small	Average	Large
4	Assignment of operations to jobs	Is absent	Partial	Complete
5	Applied equipment	Universal	Universal + special (partially)	Mostly special
6	Applied tools and equipment	Universal	Universal + special	Mostly special
7	Worker Qualification	High	Medium	Mostly low
8	Production cost	High	Medium	Low
9	Production specialization of workshops and sections	Technological	mixed	subject

7.3. Production structure of the enterprise

The production structure of an enterprise is a set of production units of an enterprise (workshops, services) included in its composition, and the forms of relations between them.

The production structure depends on the type of products and their range, the type of production and forms of its specialization, on the characteristics of technological processes. And the latter are the most important factor defining the production structure of the enterprise.

The production structure is, in essence, a form of organization of the production process. It distinguishes divisions of production:

Main;
- auxiliary;
- serving.

In the shops (subdivisions) of the main production, objects of labor are converted into finished products.

Workshops (subdivisions) of auxiliary production provide the conditions for the functioning of the main production (provision of tools, energy, equipment repair) (see Fig. 7.1).

Subdivisions of service production provide the main and auxiliary production with transport, warehouses (storage), technical control, etc.

Thus, the main, auxiliary and service workshops and production facilities are distinguished in the enterprise.

In turn, the workshops of the main production (in mechanical engineering, instrument making) are divided into:

For procurement;
- processing;
- assembly.

Procurement workshops carry out preliminary shaping of product parts (casting, hot stamping, cutting of blanks, etc.)

AT processing shops mechanical, thermal, chemical-thermal, galvanic processing, welding, paint coatings, etc. are carried out.

AT assembly shops assemble assembly units and products, their adjustment, adjustment, testing.

Based on the production structure, a general plan enterprises, i.e. the spatial arrangement of all workshops and services, as well as routes and communications on the territory of the plant. In this case, the direct flow of material flows should be ensured. The shops must be located in the sequence of the production process.

Shop- this is the main structural production unit of an enterprise, administratively isolated and specializing in the production of a certain part or products or in the performance of technologically homogeneous or identical work purposes. Workshops are divided into sections, which are a group of jobs united according to certain characteristics.

Shops and sections are created according to the principle of specialization:

Technological;
- subject;
- subject-closed;
- mixed.

Technological Specialization is based on the unity of applied technological processes. At the same time, a high loading of equipment is ensured, but operational and production planning becomes more difficult, the production cycle is lengthened due to increased transport operations. Technological specialization is used mainly in single and small-scale production.

Subject Specialization is based on the concentration of activities of shops (sections) on the production of homogeneous products. This allows you to concentrate the production of a part or product within a workshop (section), which creates the prerequisites for organizing direct-flow production, simplifies planning and accounting, and shortens the production cycle. Subject specialization is typical for large-scale and mass production.

If a complete cycle of manufacturing a part or product is carried out within a workshop or site, this subdivision is called subject-closed.

Workshops (sections) organized according to the subject-closed principle of specialization have significant economic advantages, as this reduces the duration of the production cycle as a result of the complete or partial elimination of oncoming or return movements, reduces the loss of time for equipment changeover, and simplifies the system of planning and operational management the course of production.

A comparison of production structures with technological and subject specialization is shown in Figures 7.3. and 7.4.

Rice. 7.3. Production structure of an enterprise with technological specialization (fragment)

Figure 7.4. Production structure of an enterprise with subject specialization (fragment)

Production structure shop is shown in Fig. 7.5.

Figure 7.5. Production structure of the workshop

7.4. Production cycle and its structure

Production cycle- this is a calendar period of time during which the material, workpiece or other processed item goes through all the operations of the production process or a certain part of it and turns into finished products. It is expressed in calendar days or, with a low labor intensity of the product, in hours.

The structure of the production cycle is shown in fig. 7.6.

Rice. 7.6. Structure of the production cycle

Production cycle Tc:

T c \u003d T vrp + T vpr,

where T vrp - time of the working process;
T vpr - time of breaks.

During the working period, technological operations are performed

T vrp \u003d T shk + T k + T tr + T e,

where T shk - piece-calculation time;
T to - the time of control operations;
T tr - the time of transportation of objects of labor;
T e is the time of natural processes (aging, relaxation, natural drying, settling of suspensions in liquids, etc.).

The sum of the times of piece, control operations, transportation is called operating time (T opr):

T det = T shk + T k + T tr.

In the operating cycle, T to and T tr are conditionally included, since in organizational terms they do not differ from technological operations.

T wk \u003d T op + T pz + T en + T oto,

where T op - operational time;
T pz - preparatory and final time when processing a new batch of parts;
T en - time for rest and natural needs of workers;
T oto - the time of organizational and technical maintenance (receipt and delivery of the instrument, cleaning the workplace, lubricating equipment, etc.).

Operational time (T op), in turn, consists of the main (T os) and auxiliary time (T in):

T op \u003d T os + T in.

Prime time is the actual time that work is being processed or completed.

Auxiliary time:

T in \u003d T y + T s + T ok,

where T y is the time of installation and removal of the part (assembly unit) from the equipment;
T C - the time of fastening and detachment of the part in the device;
T ok - the time of the operational control of the worker (with the stop of the equipment) during the operation.

The time of breaks (T vpr) is determined by the mode of work (T RT), the interoperational laying of the part (T mo), the time of breaks for overhaul maintenance and equipment inspections (T r) and the time of breaks associated with shortcomings in the organization of production (T org):

T vpr \u003d T mo + T rt + T r + T org.

The time of interoperational sojourn (T mo) is determined by the time of batching breaks (T pairs), waiting breaks (T cool) and picking breaks (T kp):

T mo \u003d T steam + T cool + T kp.

Partion breaks (T pairs) occur during the manufacture of products in batches and are due to the aging of the processed parts until all the parts in the batch are ready for the technological operation.

Wait breaks (T oj) are caused by inconsistent duration of adjacent operations of the technological process.

Gathering breaks (T kp) occur during the transition from one phase of the production process to another.

Thus, in general terms, the production cycle is expressed by the formula

T c \u003d T det + T e + T mo + T rt + T r + T org.

When calculating the production cycle, it is necessary to take into account the overlap of some elements of time either by technological time or by the time between operations. The time of transportation of objects of labor (T tr) and the time of selective quality control (T k) are overlapping elements.

Based on the foregoing, the production cycle can be expressed by the formula

T c \u003d (T shk + T mo) to per r k o r + T e,

where k lane is the conversion factor of working days into calendar days (the ratio of the number of calendar days (D k) to the number of working days in a year (D p), k per p \u003d D k / D p);
kop - coefficient taking into account breaks for overhaul maintenance of equipment and organizational problems (usually 1.15-1.2).

In mass production, products are produced in batches.

production batch(n) is a group of products of the same name and size, launched into production within a certain time interval with the same preparatory and final time for the operation.

Operating Party- a production batch or part of it entering the workplace to perform a technological operation.

7.5. Methods for calculating the production cycle

Distinguish between simple and complex production cycles.

Simple The production cycle is the production cycle of a part.

Complicated production cycle - the cycle of manufacturing a product.

The duration of the production cycle to a large extent depends on the method of transferring the part (product) from operation to operation. There are three types of movement of a part (products) in the process of their manufacture:

Consistent;
- parallel;
- parallel-serial.

At sequential type of movement each subsequent operation begins only after the completion of the processing of the entire batch of parts at the previous operation (Fig. 7.7).

Rice. 7.7. Operating cycle for sequential movement of a batch of parts

Here, the operating cycle of a batch consisting of three parts (n=3) processed in four operations is calculated:

T last \u003d 3 (t piece 1 + t piece 2 + t piece 3 + t piece 4) \u003d 3 (2 + 1 + 4 + 1.5) \u003d 25.5

where n is the number of parts in the production batch (pcs);
N op - the number of operations of the technological process;
t ti - the norm of time for execution i-th operation(min.).

If all or some operations have parallel jobs, then the operating cycle is determined by the formula

where C pmi - the number of jobs occupied by the manufacture of a batch of parts for each operation.

With a consistent type of movement of parts (products), there are no interruptions in the operation of equipment and a worker at each operation, a high load of equipment during a shift is possible, but the production cycle has the largest value, which reduces the turnover of working capital.

Parallel motion view characterized by the transfer of parts (products) to the next operation immediately after the previous operation, regardless of the readiness of the rest of the batch. Parts are transferred from operation to operation individually or in operational batches into which the production batch is divided. The process occurs continuously if complete equality or multiplicity of operations in time is achieved, which is typical for production lines:

,

where r is the cycle of the production line (min).

The graph of the movement of a batch of parts with parallel movement is shown in Fig. 7.8.

Rice. 7.8. Operating cycle with parallel movement of a batch of parts

The parallel type of movement of a part (products) is the most effective, but the possibilities of its application are limited, since prerequisite such a movement is the equality or multiplicity of the duration of the operations, as mentioned above. Otherwise, losses (breaks) in the operation of the equipment and the worker are inevitable.

According to the schedule (Figure 7.8), we determine the operating cycle with a parallel type of movement:

T pairs = (t pcs1 + t pcs2 + t pcs3 + t pcs4) + (3-1)t pcs3 = 8.5 + (3-1)4 = 16.5 min.

,

where t pcsmax is the execution time of the operation, the longest in the technological process (min).

When transferring parts (products) by operational batches (p), the calculation is carried out according to the formula

,

where p is the size of the operating lot (in pieces).

parallel-serial the type of movement consists in the fact that the manufacture of products at a subsequent operation begins before the completion of the manufacture of the entire batch at the previous operation in such a way that work on each operation for this batch as a whole proceeds without interruptions. In contrast to the parallel type of movement, here there is only a partial overlap in the execution time of adjacent operations.

In practice, there are two types of combination of adjacent operations in time:

The execution time of the subsequent operation is greater than the execution time of the previous operation;
- the execution time of the subsequent operation is less than the execution time of the previous operation.

In the first case, it is possible to apply a parallel type of movement of parts and fully load jobs.

In the second In this case, a parallel-sequential type of movement is acceptable with the maximum possible combination in time of both operations. In this case, the maximum combined operations differ from each other by the time of manufacture of the last part (or the last operational batch) in the subsequent operation.

A diagram of a parallel-sequential type of movement is shown in fig. 7.9.

Rice. 7.9. Operating cycle with parallel-sequential movement of a batch of parts

AB, VG (equal to A "B"), DE - the time of the subsequent operation, overlapped by the time of the previous operation:

In this case, the operating cycle will be less than with a sequential type of movement, by the amount of combination of each adjacent pair of operations:

The first and second operations - AB = (3-1) t pcs2;
- the second and third operations - VG = (3-1) t pcs2;
- the third and fourth operations - DE = (3-1) t pcs4, (t pcs2 and t pcs4 have a shorter time t pcs.kor from each adjacent pair of operations).

Thus, the alignment time

Formula for calculation

When performing operations on parallel workstations

When transferring parts by operational batches

The parallel-sequential type of movement of parts (products) ensures the operation of the equipment and the worker without interruptions. The production cycle in this form is longer compared to parallel, but less than in series.

The production cycle of the product T qi can be calculated by the formula

T qi \u003d T cd + T c.sb,

where T cd is the production cycle for the manufacture of the leading part;
T c.sb - production cycle of assembly work.

Ways and meaning of shortening the production cycle

The production cycle is used as a standard for operational planning of production, financial management and other planning and production calculations.

The production cycle (T c) is directly related to the standard of working capital:

T c \u003d OS n.p / Q days,

where OS n.p - the amount of working capital in work in progress (rubles);
Q days - one-day output (rubles).

Reducing the production cycle is of great economic importance:

The turnover of working capital is reduced by reducing the volume of work in progress;
- increased capital productivity of fixed production assets;
- the cost of products decreases due to the reduction of the conditionally constant part of the costs per product, etc.

The duration of the production cycle depends on two major groups of factors:

Technical level of production;
- organization of production.

These two groups of factors mutually determine and complement each other.

The main directions for reducing the production cycle are:

Technology improvement;
- the use of more productive equipment, tools, technological equipment;
- automation of production processes and the use of flexible integrated processes;
- specialization and cooperation of production;
- organization of mass production;
- flexibility (versatility) of personnel;
- many other factors affecting the duration of the production cycle (see the structure of T c in Fig. 7.6).

7.6. Organization of in-line production

In-line production is the most effective form organization of the production process.

Signs of in-line production:

Assignment of one or a limited number of product names to a specific group of jobs;
- rhythmic repetition of technological and auxiliary operations coordinated in time;
- specialization of jobs;
- location of equipment and workplaces along the technological process;
- the use of special vehicles for the interoperational transfer of products.

In mass production, the following principles are implemented:
- specializations;
- parallelism;
- proportionality;
- straightness;
- continuity;
- rhythm.

In-line production provides the highest labor productivity, low cost of production, and the shortest production cycle.

The basis (primary link) of in-line production is production line.

The location of production lines (planning) should provide:

Straightness and the shortest path of movement of the product;
- rational use of production areas;
- conditions for the transportation of materials and parts to workplaces;
- convenience of approaches for repair and maintenance;
- sufficiency of space and equipment for storing the required stocks of materials and finished parts;
- the possibility of easy disposal of waste products.

Examples of the location of equipment and the path of movement of the product are shown in fig. 7.10 and 7.11.

Rice. 7.10. The movement of the product along the production line when the equipment is located:
a - unilateral; b - double-sided

Rice. 7.11. Schemes of the movement of products along production lines:
a - branching; b - zigzag; c - U-shaped;
g - T-shaped; d - closed; e - multilevel.

Vehicles in mass production

In mass production, a variety of vehicles are used (Table 7.3).

Table 7.3

Classification of vehicles in mass production

sign	Characteristic
Purpose	Transporters		Conveyors
Drive type	non-driven:	driven:		autonomous:
	slips gutters carts	with electric drive, hydraulic drive, pneumatic drive		industrial robots, robot rails with on-board computers and program control
Operating principle	Mechanical conveyors. Pneumatic transport. Hydrotransport. electromagnetic transport. Wave. Gravitational. Hovercraft
Design	Conveyors and conveyors: belt, roller, screw, lamellar, chain, trolley, cable (with pull washer), satellite (pallet)
Location in space	Horizontally closed	vertically closed	Suspended		Mixed (combined)
Continuity of action	continuous		Pulsating
Function	Distribution conveyors		Working conveyors

In mechanical engineering and instrumentation, conveyors are widely used - vehicles that serve to transport a product or transport and perform work operations on it and regulate the rhythm of the production line, that is, they play an organizing role in the flow. If the conveyor serves to move products and maintain the rhythm of the line by clearly addressing products to workplaces, it is called distributive, if it also serves as the place for performing the operation, it is called workers.

Fundamentals of calculation and organization of production lines

When designing and organizing production lines, calculations are made of indicators that determine the line operation schedule and methods for performing technological operations.

Production line stroke- the time interval between the release of products (parts, assembly units) from the last operation or their launch for the first operation of the production line.

Initial data for clock calculation:

Production task for the year (month, shift);
- planned fund of working hours for the same period;
- planned technological operational losses.

The production line cycle is calculated by the formula

r \u003d F d / Q vy,

where r is the cycle of the production line (in minutes);
F d - the actual annual fund of the line operation time in the planned period (min.);
Q issue - planned task for the same period of time (pcs.).

F d \u003d D slave H d cm H T cm H k lane H k rem,

where D slave is the number of working days in a year;
d cm - the number of work shifts per day;
T cm is the duration of the shift (in minutes);
k lane - coefficient taking into account the planned breaks;
k rem - coefficient taking into account the time of scheduled repairs.

k lane \u003d (T cm - T lane) / T cm,

where T lane - the time of the planned intra-shift breaks;
k rem - is calculated in a similar way.

The classification of production lines is given in table. 7.4

Table 7.4

Classification of production lines

No. p / p	sign	Characteristic
1	Degree of mechanization of technological operations	1.1. Mechanized 1.2. Complex-mechanized 1.3. semi-automatic 1.4. Automatic 1.5. Flexible integrated
2	Number of types simultaneously processed and assembled products	2.1. One-nomenclature (processing of a product of one name) 2.2. Multi-nomenclature (processing of products of several items simultaneously or sequentially)
3	The nature of the movement of products by operations production process	3.1. Continuous-flow (all operations are synchronized in time, i.e. equal to or a multiple of the line cycle) 3.2. Discontinuous flow (breaks in the production process and the inability to synchronize technological operations in time)
4	The nature of the conveyor	4.1. With a working conveyor, when operations are performed without removing the product from the conveyor 4.2. With a distribution conveyor, when the conveyor delivers the product to the workplace, and the operation is performed with the removal of the product from the conveyor 4.3. With a continuously moving conveyor 4.4. With pulsating conveyor

With the inevitable technological losses(planned yield of good ones), cycle r is calculated by the formula

r = F d / Q app,

where Q zap - the number of products launched on the production line in the planning period (pcs):

Q zap \u003d Q vyp Ch k zap,

where k zap - the coefficient of launching products on the production line, equal to the reciprocal of the output coefficient of good products (a); k zap \u003d 1 / a.

The yield of good products as a whole for the production line is determined as the product of the yield coefficients for all operations of the line

a = a 1 P a 2 P ... P a n.

Rhythm is the number of products produced by the production line per unit of time.

Calculation of the number of production line equipment is carried out for each operation of the technological process:

where - estimated quantity equipment (jobs) at the i-th operation of the production line;
t shti - the norm of piece time for the i-th operation (in minutes);
k zapi - the coefficient of launching the part for the i-th operation.

Accepted amount of equipment or jobs at each operation W pi is determined by rounding their estimated number to the nearest higher whole number.

The load factor of equipment (jobs) is defined as

Number of equipment (jobs) on the entire production line

,

where h op - the number of operations of the technological process.

Approximate number of workers(P yav) is equal to the number of jobs on the production line, taking into account multi-machine service:

,

where k mo is the coefficient of multi-machine maintenance;

,

where S R i - the number of working area.

Total number of workers on production lines is defined as the average:

,

where R cn - the average number of workers in the production line;
d - the percentage of lost working time (holidays, illnesses, etc.);
d cm - number of shifts.

Conveyor speed(V):

With continuous movement of the conveyor V=L / r;
- with pulsating motion of the conveyor V= L/ t tp ,

where L is the distance between the centers of two adjacent jobs, that is, the conveyor step (m);
t tr - the time of transportation of the product from one operation to another.

Backlog- production stock of materials, blanks or constituent parts products to ensure the uninterrupted flow of production processes on production lines.

There are the following types of backlogs:

Technological;
- transport;
- reserve (insurance);
- negotiable interoperational.

Technological backlog(Z t) - parts (assembly units, products) that are directly in the process of processing:

,

where - the number of jobs for each operation;
n i is the number of parts serviced at the same time at the i-th workplace.

Transport backlog(Z tr) - the number of parts in the process of moving between operations and located in transport devices.

With continuous movement of the conveyor

Z tr \u003d L pk P / V,

where L pk is the length of the working part of the conveyor (m);
V - conveyor speed (m/min);
P - the number of products in the operating batch (pcs).

For occasional transport

Transport technological backlog depends on the parameters of the equipment, those. processes.

Reserve (insurance) backlog is created to neutralize the consequences associated with the random nature of the output of the product in marriage, interruptions in the operation of equipment, etc.

where T pereb - the time of a possible interruption in the receipt of products from a given operation to an operation subject to insurance (min);
r - cycle of the production line (min).

Backlog on the line - the number of blanks (parts, assembly units) located between line operations and formed due to different productivity of adjacent jobs to equalize the work of lines. The size of the interoperational backlog constantly fluctuates from a maximum to zero and vice versa. The maximum value of the interoperational turnover reserve is determined by the difference in the productivity of adjacent operations:

,

where T joint - time joint work equipment for both operations (per min);
- the number of equipment for supplying and consuming related operations, operating during the period T joint (pcs);
t ti - the norm of the operation execution time.

Synchronization- the process of equalizing the duration of the operation of the technological process according to the cycle of the production line. The execution time of the operation must be equal to the line cycle or a multiple of it.

Synchronization methods:

Differentiation of operations;
- concentration of operations;
- installation of additional equipment;
- intensification of equipment operation (increase in processing modes);
- the use of progressive tools and equipment;
- improving the organization of workplace services, etc.

7.7. Organization of automated production

The highest form of in-line production is automated production, which combines the main features of in-line production with its automation. In automated production, the operation of equipment, assemblies, apparatus, installations occurs automatically according to a given program, and the worker controls their work, eliminates deviations from the given process, and adjusts the automated equipment.

Distinguish between partial and complex automation.

With partial automation the worker is completely released from work related to the implementation of technological processes. In transport, control operations during maintenance of equipment, during the installation process, manual labor is completely or partially reduced.

In conditions complex-automated production, the technological process of manufacturing products, managing this process, transporting products, control operations, and removing production waste are performed without human intervention, but equipment maintenance is manual.

The main element of automated production are automatic production lines (APL).

Automatic production line- a complex of automatic equipment located in the technological sequence of operations, connected by an automatic transport system and an automatic control system and ensuring the automatic transformation of raw materials (blanks) into a finished product (for a given auto line). In the nuclear submarine, the worker performs the functions of setting up, monitoring the operation of equipment and loading the line with blanks.

The main features of the nuclear submarine:

Automatic execution of technological operations (without human intervention);
- automatic movement of the product between the individual units of the line.

Automatic complexes with a closed cycle of product production - a number of interconnected automatic transport and handling devices of automatic lines.

Automated areas (workshops) include automatic production lines, autonomous automatic complexes, automatic transport systems, automatic warehouse systems; automatic quality control systems, automatic control systems, etc. An approximate structure of an automated production unit is shown in fig. 7.12.

Rice. 7.12. Structural composition of the automated production unit

In the conditions of a constantly changing unstable market (especially multi-product production), an important task is to increase the flexibility (multifunctionality) of automated production in order to best meet the requirements, needs and demands of consumers, to master the production of new products faster and at minimal cost.

Methods for increasing the flexibility of automated production systems:

Use of automated systems for technical preparation of production (CAD);
- application of quick-change automatic production lines;
- use of universal industrial manipulators with program management(industrial robots);
- standardization of the applied tools and means of technological equipment;
- application in automatic lines of automatically readjustable equipment (based on microprocessor technology);
- use of reconfigurable transport, storage and storage systems, etc.

However, it should be noted that any universalization requires significant additional costs and its application requires a balanced economic approach based on marketing information and research.

Automatic production lines efficient in mass production.

The composition of the automatic production line:

Automatic equipment (machines, units, installations, etc.) for the performance of technological operations;
- mechanisms for orientation, installation and fixing of products on the equipment;
- a device for transporting products for operations;
- control machines and devices (for quality control and automatic adjustment of equipment);
- means of loading and unloading lines (blanks and finished parts);
- equipment and instruments of the nuclear submarine control system;
- tool and equipment changers;
- waste disposal devices;
- a device for providing the necessary types of energy ( Electric Energy, steam, inert gases, compressed air, water, sewer systems);
- devices for supplying and removing cutting fluids, etc.

The latest generation automatic lines also include electronic devices:

1. "Smart supervisors" with monitors on each piece of equipment and on the central control panel. Their purpose is to warn the personnel in advance about the progress of the processes occurring in individual units and in the system as a whole and give instructions on the necessary actions of the personnel (text on the monitor). For example:

Negative trend of the technical parameter of the unit;
- information about the backlog and the number of blanks;
- about marriage and its causes, etc.

2. Statistical analyzers with graph plotters designed for statistical processing of various parameters of nuclear submarine operation:

Time of work and downtime (causes of downtime);
- the number of manufactured products (total, the level of marriage);
- statistical processing of each parameter of the processed product on each automatically controlled operation;
- statistical processing of failure (breakdown, failure) of the systems of each piece of equipment and the line as a whole, etc.

3. Interactive selective assembly systems (i.e. selection of parameters for relatively rough (inaccurate) machined parts included in the assembly unit, the combination of which provides high-quality assembly unit parameters).

At the enterprises of mechanical engineering and instrumentation, automatic lines are used, which differ from each other both in technological principles of operation and in forms of organization. Classification and characteristic features of automatic production lines are given in table. 7.5.

Table 7.5

Classification of automatic lines

№	sign	Name and a brief description of
1	Flexibility	1.1. Rigid non-adjustable AL designed for processing one product. 1.2. Reconfigurable AL for a specific group of products of the same name 1.3. Flexible AL, consisting of "machining centers" of flexible transport and storage systems with industrial robots and designed to process any parts of a certain range and dimensions (for example, body parts with dimensions from 100' 100' 100 to 600' 600'600)
2	Number of simultaneously processed items	2.1. Single piece processing lines 2.2. Bulk Processing Lines
3	Method of product transportation by AL	3.1. AL with continuous transportation of workpieces 3.2. AL with periodic transportation
4	Kinematic connection of units (equipment) AL	4.1. AL with a rigid connection of units (for example, a rotor-conveyor, a chute, etc.) 4.2. AL with flexible connection of units (flexibility is ensured by the presence in front of each unit of a device for accumulating and issuing a stock of products (bunkers, cassettes, canisters, storage towers, etc.))
5	Features of the transport system	See table 7.3. "Vehicle classification"

When designing automatic production lines, a number of calculations are performed. Basically, they do not differ from the calculations of non-automated lines, but there are some features.

The nuclear submarine cycle is determined by the formula

where r is the nuclear submarine cycle (min);
F n - nominal annual fund of line operation time in one shift (hour);
d cm is the number of work shifts;
h is the coefficient of technical utilization of nuclear submarines, taking into account the loss of time in case of various malfunctions in the operation of line equipment and the time spent on re-adjustment;
Q issue - planned task (pcs).

If the value of the time norm of an individual line operation is greater than the line cycle, the time norm of the limiting operation is taken per cycle.

Backlogs are formed in bunker (flexible) AL:

Compensatory;
- pulsating.

Compensating reserves of nuclear submarines(Z k) are formed at different productivity of the replacement sections of the nuclear submarine:

,

where T to - the period of time to create a compensating reserve, i.e. time interval of continuous operation of NPS shift sections with different cycles of operation, min;
r m and r b - smaller and larger cycles of operation of adjacent sections (operations) of the nuclear submarine, min.

Pulsating backlogs created to maintain the rhythm of production. Their purpose is to prevent arrhythmia in the course of the production process at individual nuclear submarine operations.

7.8. Flexible Integrated Manufacturing

Increasing market instability, increased competition for the consumer between manufacturers, virtually unlimited possibilities of scientific and technological progress have led to frequent product replacement. The main factor in competition became a time factor. The firm that can bring the idea to industrial development in a short time and offer the consumer a high-quality and relatively cheap product becomes the winner.

Rapid product changeover and requirements for its low cost high quality leads to a contradiction:

On the one hand, low production costs(ceteris paribus) are provided by the use of automatic lines, special equipment;
- but on the other hand, the design and manufacture of such equipment often exceeds 1.5-2 years (even under current conditions), that is, by the time the product is launched, it will already be obsolete.

The use of universal equipment (non-automatic) increases the complexity of manufacturing, that is, the price, which is not accepted by the market.

Such a situation arose in the 60s of our century and, naturally, the machine tool firms faced the task of creating new equipment that would meet the following requirements:

Universality, that is, easy readjustability (functional invariance);
- automation;
- automatic readjustability on command from the control computer(UVM);
- embedding in automatic lines and complexes;
- high accuracy;
- high reliability;
- automatic adjustment (correction) of the tool during the operation, etc.

And such equipment was created. It includes:

- "machining centers" machining with UVM (with multi-tool magazines (up to 100 or more tools), with an accuracy of positioning the product relative to the tool of 0.25 microns, with "smart supervisors" of the functioning of all systems, with active control and automatic tool adjustment);
- industrial robots with program control as a universal tool for manipulating parts, universal transport handling equipment, as well as reconfigurable painter robots, welding robots, assembly robots, etc.;
- laser cutting machines that replace the most complex cold stamping complexes, which themselves determine the optimal cutting of materials;
- thermal multi-chamber units, where heat treatment or chemical-thermal treatment is carried out in each individual chamber according to a given program;
- high-precision three-coordinate measuring machines with program control (on granite frames, with wear-resistant (diamond, ruby) meters);
- laser non-contact measuring devices, etc.

This list can be continued for quite some time. On the basis of the listed equipment created:

Initially, flexible production modules of the GIM (machining center, robotic arm, automated warehouse, UVM);
- then GIK - flexible integrated complexes and lines;
- flexible integrated sections, workshops, productions, plants.

When creating a flexible production system, integration occurs:

The whole variety of manufactured parts in the processing group;
- equipment;
- material flows (blanks, parts, products, fixtures, equipment, basic and auxiliary materials);
- the processes of creation and production of products from the idea to the finished product (there is a merger of the main, auxiliary and service production processes);
- services by merging all service processes into a single system;
- management based on the UVM system, data banks, application software packages, CAD, ACS;
- information flows for decision-making on all subdivisions of the system on the availability and use of materials, blanks, products, as well as means of displaying information;
- personnel due to the merging of professions (designer-technologist-programmer-organizer).

As a result, GUI systems have the following structural components:

Automated transport and storage system (ATSS);
- automatic system instrumental support (ASIO);
- automatic waste disposal system (AWS);
- automated quality assurance system (ASOK);
- automated reliability assurance system (ASON);
- automated control system of the GPS (ACS of the GPS);
- computer-aided design system (CAD);
- automated system for technological preparation of production (ASTPP);
- automated system for operational planning of production (ASOPP);
- automated system for the maintenance and service of equipment (ASSOO);
- automated production control system (APCS).

The organization of the GPS is shown on the example of a flexible automatic line for the manufacture of body parts of the Toyota company (cylinder blocks of automobile engines) (Fig. 7.13).

Figure 7.13. Flexible automatic line for processing body parts

The flexible automatic line is designed to process 80 types of automotive cylinder blocks manufactured to order in any sequence.

The line consists of the following components:

4 machining centers (1) with tool drums with 40 tools;
- three-coordinate measuring machine with program control (2);
- automatic washing machine (3);
- automatic transport and storage system, consisting of two vertical cellular automated warehouses (5, 6) with two stacker robots (7), an automated two-track roller conveyor with an autonomous drive for each roller (8);
- line control panel with UVM (9);
- workplace for preparing instrumental drums (10);
- automated system waste disposal (11);
- blank conveyor (12).

Workpieces with processed basic (technological) surfaces are fed through the conveyor 12 to the ball table, where, using a manual manipulator, they are installed on special devices - "satellites" (pallets). A magnetic information carrier is glued to each workpiece, which contains information about the workpiece (number, material, etc.). At the command of the operator, the stacker robot installs a "satellite" with a workpiece fixed on it into any free cell of the workpiece warehouse. The reader of the cell transmits information to the UVM of the site.

When any machining center 1 is released from operation, the CCM of the line, in accordance with the operational plan of production transferred from the CCM of the cylinder block manufacturing site, instructs the stacker robot 7 of the billet warehouse 6 to feed the next workpiece of a certain size into processing.

The stacker robot removes the satellite with the required workpiece from the warehouse cell and installs it on one of the tracks of the automatic conveyor, which receives a command from the UVM to deliver the "satellite" with the workpiece to a free machining center (MC). Stopping the workpiece against a given OC is achieved by rotating the rollers of the conveyor with autonomous drives from the warehouse to a given place, while the remaining rollers remain motionless.

Simultaneously with the command to the stacker robot to feed the workpiece, the UVM rewrites the program for processing the specified workpiece on the program carrier of the machining center, which, during the movement of the workpiece through the transport system, changes the tool to perform the first transition of the operation and sets the necessary processing modes, that is, it is fully prepared for working with the new ( completely different in terms of processing parameters) blanks.

The robot-manipulator 4, also at the command of the UVM, moves along the rail track to a free machining center and reloads from the conveyor 8 to the working table of the machining center, where the "satellite" with the workpiece is automatically fixed (using bayonet clamps) and the cylinder block is completely processed. .

At the end of processing, the “satellite” with the finished part is reloaded onto the conveyor, and from the conveyor into the washing machine 3. After washing and drying, the processed part in the same way enters the control machine, where it is controlled according to the program transmitted from the UVM.

If the parameters correspond to the given ones, the finished part enters the warehouse of finished products through the transport system, about which they receive information from the UVM of the line.

Before being placed in the warehouse of finished products, the operator removes the finished part from the "satellite", which is returned to the warehouse of blanks.

If the controlled parameters of the product do not correspond to the specified ones, the control machine calls the operator, who makes a decision. If necessary, at the command of the operator, the control machine prints out the results of the control.

In order to save working time, control over the state of tools in the tool drum and its change is carried out outside the machining center at a special workplace. To do this, the tool drum is removed by an overhead crane with a special swivel device and a new drum is immediately installed.

The control and adjustment of the tool (in special tool holders) is carried out using an instrumental microscope.

The site is served by 3 people:

Operator-engineer (he is also an adjuster, UVM operator, programmer and controller);
- worker of the warehouse of blanks and finished products;
- Toolmaker.

The use of GPS leads to a complete change in approaches to design, development and mass production, as well as production planning (including operational planning).

However, the cost of such a HPS is very high, and a thorough economic study of the effectiveness of its use is required.

The production structure of the GPS is shown in Figure 7.14 (compare with Figures 7.3 and 7.4).

Figure 7.14. The production structure of the flexible production system (fragment)

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