Management procedures in management activities. Management processes in the organization

The process as an activity for the production of a certain product that has a certain value for the consumer (external or internal) has its own characteristics. Activity performance requirements, i.e. to the entire process can be much broader than the product requirements of the process. The main requirements for the process are usually to ensure the specified indicators of productivity, cost, profitability, lead times, product quality. Product requirements are a special case general requirements to the process, which can be established by the management of the organization, external normative documents, internal regulations, as well as internal and external consumers.

Process management in the management system consists in organizing in a certain way the influences on the components of the process in order to ensure the fulfillment of the requirements for the process.

The process is controlled by executive responsible for the execution of the process and its results. This official is called the process manager. In the literature, the term "process owner" or "process master" is often used to refer to the process manager. However, the meaning of the term "leader" is more consistent with the content of management activities. Not every "owner" or "owner" identifies himself with the manager. The resources necessary for the implementation of the process are allocated to the head of the process, the necessary rights and powers are delegated.

The process manager is integral integral part process, playing the role of the subject of management. Each process does not exist on its own, but is part of the organization's activities and therefore is controlled by its top management. The scheme of interaction of the process manager with its other components and the management of the organization is shown in fig. 4.6.

The process shown in the diagram has a primary supplier of raw materials to be processed into final product. The organization's top management acts as a secondary provider of process requirements, including process product requirements. The process has access to the primary consumer of the product of the process, which has real quality, and in the person of top management has a secondary consumer of reporting on the effectiveness of the process.

In addition to the process manager, the diagram contains all the main components: technology; resources, including participants in the process; parameters: the actual process, the product of the process, satisfaction of primary and secondary consumers.

Rice. 4.6.

In order to manage the process, its manager has established channels for obtaining information about the progress of the process and information from the consumer of the process product.

In the diagram, two process control loops can be distinguished:

• - the control loop by top management to achieve the goals of the organization;
• - the contour of operational management by the process manager to achieve the goals of the process.

Since the process cannot exist separately from the organization, for its purposeful work, top management determines the purpose of the process, sets goals for the process manager, agrees on how to achieve them, and approves the planned indicators of the effectiveness and efficiency of the process.

The process manager, in turn, makes management decisions based on the information received and the established plans.

Process management begins with the manager planning the allocation of resources to achieve the goal with maximum efficiency and the progress of the process technology. Further, based on the regular receipt of data on the progress of the process from control points, the manager analyzes the information, comparing the result with the planned indicators and instructions from top management. If the deviation of the results obtained from the planned indicators exceeds those established for this indicator boundaries, the process manager must:

• - fix the fact of deviation;
• - analyze the causes of the deviation and identify the causes;
• - evaluate the economic feasibility of eliminating the causes of deviation;
• - if the expediency is established, the manager is obliged to organize the implementation of corrective actions to eliminate the causes of the deviation;
• – report to higher management on their actions if the elimination of the causes requires the reallocation of resources or the allocation of additional resources.

The results of data analysis, identified deviations, decisions made on the need to eliminate the causes of deviations, methods for its implementation and the results of elimination are recorded by the head of the process in any form convenient for him. Reporting on the progress of the process goes to a higher manager in the form of a certificate of the progress of the process. Based on the analysis of the reporting materials received from the head of the process on the progress of the process, the higher head accepts corrective amendments and transfers them to the head of the process. For the latter, these corrective amendments have the force of an order. Analysis of the progress of the process is carried out for all groups of indicators. Since process indicators may have deviations from the average value, it is necessary to establish criteria for indicators. Criteria are set in cases where a higher manager must intervene in the course of the process to make managerial decisions.

An illustration of the dynamics of the process movement under the influence of managerial decisions from the initial state to the established goal is shown in fig. 4.7.

Rice. 4.7.

BUT - the initial state of the process;

AT – the final state of the process (the goal of the process)

The main task of any process manager is to reduce the variability of process indicators and improve them. After the number of indicators going beyond the limits set for them is reduced to an acceptable level, it will be possible to tighten the limits or introduce limits for additional indicators. main goal management should be the continuous improvement of process performance.

Typically, the process and organization performance metrics consist of three streams of information:

• - information about the product of the process, the degree of its compliance with the established or predicted requirements of consumers, the stability and reproducibility of product parameters ("what result did we get?");
• - information about the quality of the process, its effectiveness, efficiency, resource intensity, stability and reproducibility of process parameters ("at what cost did we achieve this result?");
• – information about the degree of customer satisfaction, the possibility and feasibility of the anticipated customer requirements ("how satisfied is the customer with what he received from us?").

An example of indicators for these three groups is given in Table. 4.1.

The key task of process management is to effectively achieve the goals of the process by:

• – exclusion of irrational expenses of working time and other resources of the process;
• - activation of activities to control the movement and use of process resources by all its participants;
• - identifying critical areas of managerial impact and priority tasks that ensure the achievement of planned results.

At the same time, the task of process control is essentially connected with the solution of two problems.

The first belongs to the category of technical problems and must be solved by known engineering methods. The solution to this problem is primarily related to solving the problem of converting consumer expectations into technically achievable requirements for products (goods, services) and assessing the likely level of costs necessary to exceed consumer expectations, and, if possible, competitors' offers. The resulting scores can later be used as the promised quality.

Table 4.1

Indicators of the product of the process, the process itself and customer satisfaction of the process

Groups indicators	Metric Properties
	Cost	Temporary	Technical
Process product indicators	Product price. Application costs	Shelf life/service life	Technical specifications. No defects. Performance level.
Process indicators	Total cost per volume of production. Production losses. Fulfillment of the client's order by quantity	Performance. Resource access time. Fulfillment of the client's request on time	The number of employed employees. Percentage of nonconforming products. The number of process stops. Fulfillment of the client's quality requirements. Competence of personnel (availability of knowledge, skills and abilities). Number of causes of nonconformities eliminated. Number of recurring nonconformities
Process Customer Satisfaction Indicators	Growth in consumption or sales. Market share	Duration of product/product use	Number of complaints

Further, based on the requirements of the promised product quality, the task of determining the requirements for the process technology must be solved in order to ensure that this quality is obtained. The solution of these tasks is carried out at the design stage of products and processes and requires the participants in the processes to be truly focused on consumers, as well as to possess methods for determining consumer expectations with their subsequent transformation into requirements for products and processes.

Another major technical challenge that arises already at the stage of implementation of process activities is to develop methods for influencing variability in such a way that fluctuations in process parameters do not go beyond the limits provided for in the design of products and processes.

A technical problem must be solved in such a way that each product delivered or service rendered contributes as best as possible to customer satisfaction and is at least as good as promised.

The second problem in process management is organizational. When separating processes in an organization that are performed by various functional units, and when trying to manage these processes, the problem arises of overcoming the inefficient interaction of units of different functional subordination, or, in other words, the problem of eliminating the so-called functional barriers. The task of the process manager in this case is to ensure the maximum integration of all participants in the process horizontally, orienting their activities towards the ultimate goal of the process and achieving customer satisfaction. The nontriviality of solving such a problem is as follows. A process manager of a certain level actually manages not the people involved in the process, but the activities of these people. In this role, he has no subordinates to whom he could give orders, control their implementation, etc. What he can do to realize his responsibility is to design and improve the holistic order of the process, to assess the level of achievement by the process of its goals regarding the formation of the desired output. And he should be less interested in which structural divisions employ the employees necessary for the effective implementation of the process.

The idea is that both process managers, heads of functional departments, and performers of individual operations in the process learn to work in a dual subordination system, as shown in Fig. 4.8.

In accordance with this scheme, the performer from the structural unit, performing the operation assigned to him in the process, is functionally subordinate to the head of the process, and administratively continues to remain under the command of the head of his unit, and together they decide how best to perform their professional actions in this process. Keeping in mind the system of dual reporting and the organizational problems associated with it, when designing the structure of the processes that represent the activities of the organization, it is very important to initially determine which processes the organization needs. And only then it is necessary to consider the question of what kind of employees are needed to implement these processes and how best to group them into structural units.

In general, the action algorithm of the process manager is a closed control cycle, known as the Deming-Shewhart cycle, Plan-Do-Check – act (PDCA): plan - do - control - correct (intervention in the course of events).

The process approach was first proposed by representatives of the classical school of management, they formulated the main management functions, considering them necessary for any organization.

Management process- this is the activity of the united subjects of management, aimed at achieving a specific goal, by performing certain functions, using appropriate methods and observing the principles of management.

The subject of the management process is the information that performers and managers use in their activities.

means implementation management process is the managerial labor of personnel, carriers and channels of information transmission.

Various management processes in various areas of productive activity have common characteristics:

1. Continuity - due to the fact that some management processes are transferred to others, the higher the level of management and the longer the duration falls under the management process.

2. Irregularity - implementation period various stages management is different; study, analysis, preparation of long-term solutions, as well as short-term decision-making.

3. Cyclicity - due to the fact that the stages of the management process are mandatory and repetitive.

4. Sequence - implies compliance with a certain order of management stages: goal setting, planning, decision making, organization, operational influence, control, adjustment.

5. Variability - due to the variability of environments, both external and internal.

6. Constancy - characterizes the level of perfection of the organization's management, the ability to prevent variability, perfection organizational structure and management rules and procedures.

Basic law of control- on each enterprise, as an open system, the internal and external environment have a different influence, both naturally repetitive and random. To maintain its integrity and ability to function, the management system of the enterprise must respond to each such influence with the appropriate countermeasures, and precisely at the right time.

There are a number of requirements in the management process at the enterprise.

The main requirement for the organization of management in an enterprise is that the enterprise management system must have the same or greater variety and speed of action programs, corresponding to the possible diversity of the impact of the environment on the system that is controlled.

The main elements of management are: strategies, structure, systems, style, value compatibility, staff composition, sum of skills. The characteristics of the controls are given in Table. 5.1.

Table 5.1

Characteristics of the controls

controls	element characteristic
structure	Description of the characteristics of the organizational chart (levels, links, organizational links)
	Description of formal and informal processes and establishment of procedures in the enterprise
strategies	Orientation of the enterprise to achieve its goals
staff composition	Characteristics of the main categories of personnel of the enterprise
sum of skills
	Characteristics of the actions of the company's managers aimed at achieving the goals and the management system as a whole
commonality of value	The most important values ​​and fundamental concepts that determine the behavior of participants in the activities of the enterprise

Enterprise controls are divided into hard and soft (Fig. 5.3).

Rice. 5.3. Formation of an effective and efficient approach to enterprise management

The characteristics of the components of the management process of an effective and efficient approach are given in Table. 5.2.

Management processes are complex phenomena. Understanding the essence of complex phenomena and obtaining reliable information about them is possible only by repeatedly observing the behavior of the object or phenomenon under study. At the same time, it is important for us not only to obtain reliable material about the management process, but also to assess the qualitative side of the latter.

Table 5.2

Compared effective and efficient approach to enterprise management

Characteristics of the components of the management process
By results approach	By actionable approach
Doing work in a way that ensures its efficiency	Carrying out the work as necessary, even in cases where it does not produce significant results
Avoidance of problems to reduce the effects of surprise	Solve problems as they arise with controls
Optimal use of resources, search for effective substitutes	Resource Saving
Increasing profitability	Cost reduction
Achievement of the best results	Performance official duties according to instructions
Outcome assessments	Cost control

Since the subject of work of managerial personnel is information, then quantification the quality of management should be given primarily in terms of informational positions, and studies of existing management processes should be carried out using the principles of system analysis.

System studies require the preservation of the integrity of the system under study, its unity with the environment and the subsequent directed ordering of the elements of the system, and the improvement of these elements should be aimed at improving the functioning of the entire system.

The study of production management processes consists of well-defined successive stages:

a) setting the task and determining the objectives of the study;

b) examination of existing forms and methods of production management, their evaluation and comparative analysis;

c) definition " bottlenecks"in the management process;

d) determination of the factors that play the main positive and negative role in the management of the object under study;

e) search for criteria evaluating the effectiveness of management;

Management process- is a collection certain types activities aimed at streamlining and coordinating the functioning and development of the organization and its elements in the interests of achieving their goals.

Management process solves two tasks:

• tactical is to maintain stability, harmony of interaction and performance of all elements of the control object;
• strategic ensures its development and improvement, transfer to a qualitatively and quantitatively different state.

The process is characterized continuity, cyclical repetition of individual phases (collection, processing, analysis, storage, control of information; development and decision-making; organization of their implementation), unevenness, inertia, manifested in the delay of managerial actions. It develops and improves along with the organization itself.

Management process combines such moments as managerial work, its subject and means, and is realized in a specific product.

The subject of labor in management are management documents, which received such a name, in contrast to other documents that are not related at all to the management process. The document is currently the main carrier of information in the management system. With their help, the relationship between the structural divisions of the organization is carried out.

The transformed information acquires an independent existence and can be accumulated, which leads to a complication of the management process, an increase in the dominance of past decisions over current ones. The latter, however, is to a certain extent useful, since it generates organizational order, which ensures the automatic operation of management mechanisms and the performance of appropriate actions without special instructions. However, it is limited, as it is not able to subordinate and coordinate all organizational elements.

By means of managerial workis everything that contributes to the implementation of operations with information - from computers, telephones to pens and paper. At the same time, they distinguish: means of compiling documents (printers, voice recorders, etc.); means of processing and processing documents (stamps, cutters, punchers); means of grouping and storing documents (folders, folders, file cabinets); means of performing computational operations; means of operational communication; furniture.

product of labor is the result of the management process, which is a management decision. With the help of one or another material carrier (mainly documents), these decisions come directly to the control object.

managerial labor, as well as engineering, design, research, etc., belongs to the category mental labor carried out by a person in the form of neuropsychic efforts. He exists in three main forms: heuristic, administrative and operator.

heuristic labor is reduced to a set of actions for the analysis and study of certain problems facing the organization, and the development on the basis of this of various options for their solutions - managerial, economic, technical. Depending on the complexity and nature of the problems themselves, this work is carried out by managers and specialists.

Administrative labor is the domain of chief executives. It is associated with the performance of such types of work as the current coordination of the activities of subordinates, their control, evaluation, motivation, management (bringing orally and in writing the decisions made to the performers), instruction, information exchange (carried out in the process of holding meetings and meetings, receiving visitors , reference business negotiations, answering letters and phone calls, bypassing workplaces).

Operator labor aimed at technical support production and management processes necessary information. It includes such work as documentation (formulation, reproduction, sorting, and storage of various kinds of documents); primary accounting and accounting (collection of statistical, accounting and other information about production, economic, social and other processes occurring within the organization); communicative-technical, computational and formal-logical (sequential processing of the collected information and the implementation on its basis and according to a given algorithm, the calculations necessary for decision-making).

This work falls to the lot of specialists and technical performers. Part of it, strictly speaking, does not apply to the mental, so the term "non-physical labor" is sometimes used to refer to it.

The process of managerial work consists of elementary actions, or operations, that is, homogeneous, logically indivisible parts of management activities, with one or a group of information carriers (documents) from the moment they are received until they are transferred in a transformed form to others or for storage.

Management operations is a technologically inseparable processing process management information entering this structural unit.

Management operations are: search, computational, logical, descriptive, graphic, control, communication (for example, listening, reading, talking, observing the actions of various devices, thinking, etc.).

An independent complex of information processing operations (collection, study, analysis, formulation of conclusions, their execution), ending with a result defined in form and content in the form of an oral message or document (certificate, order, letter, etc.), was called work.

Management jobs vary:

• according to the intended purpose (foresight, activation, control);
• by specific content (research, planning);
• by periods (strategic, tactical, operational);
• by stages (goal setting, situation analysis, problem definition, solution search); by orientation (inside or outside the organization);
• by spheres (economic, social, technological);
• by objects (production, personnel);
• on forms and methods of implementation; by organizational role (differentiating and integrating);
• by the nature of information transformation (stereotypical, algorithmic, and creative);
• according to the degree of difficulty.

Let us dwell on the latter, since for managerial work it is perhaps the main characteristic.

The complexity of managerial work is due to several circumstances.

Firstly, the scale, number and composition of the problems to be solved, the links between them, the variety of methods used, organizational principles.

Secondly, the need to make new, non-traditional decisions, often under conditions of uncertainty or risk, which requires deep professional knowledge, experience, and broad erudition.

Thirdly, the complexity of managerial work is determined by the degree of efficiency, independence, responsibility, riskiness of decisions that need to be made. The manager, when making decisions, often takes responsibility not only for the material well-being of people, but for their health and even life.

• communication (negotiating, receiving visitors, bypassing the organization, going on business trips);
• administrative and coordinating (bringing to the executors of the decisions made orally and writing, compiling and issuing tasks, instructing);
• control and evaluation (checking the timeliness and quality of assignments);
• analytical and constructive (studying information and preparing decisions);
• information and technical (with information carriers) which take 10 - 15% of working time; primary accounting and accounting.

management procedure- a complex of interrelated management operations and documents in a certain order aimed at achieving a fixed .

The procedure should reflect the purpose of the work, the documents used and developed, their content, and the order of passage.

The classification of procedures and operations is carried out according to a number of criteria:

1. By content:
   • information or information technology are associated with the processing of information and its carriers. Documentation, primary accounting, accounting and computing operations and procedures are also distinguished here;
   • logical-cogitative or analytical-constructive ones are associated with the preparation and adoption of managerial decisions;
   • organizational ones consist of service and communication, administrative and coordination operations and procedures.
2. By the nature of the combination in time:
   • consecutive, i.e. each operation or procedure begins only after the end of the previous one;
   • parallel, involving the simultaneous execution of operations and procedures;
   • parallel-sequential ones provide for a partial combination of related operations and procedures in time and space.
3. By difficulty:
   • simple operations and procedures, i.e. containing several elements and operations;
   • complex operations (20-30 elements) and procedures (100 or more operations).
4. According to the degree of repetition:
   • repetitive, i.e. constantly performed by employees of the administrative apparatus;
   • non-repetitive or creative, complex operations and procedures.

With all its diversity and varying degrees of complexity, management procedures are cyclical.

Management cycle- this is the period of circulation of information in the field of management, which is measured by a specific time interval or calendar period for each procedure.

Questions for revision and discussion

1. Basic laws of management activity.

2. Sections of management and understanding of their place in management activities.

3. Characteristics of the principles of management.

4. Why do we need different approaches in the management of organizations?

5. Why is the situational approach in management gaining authority among modern managers?

7 MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION:

ELEMENTS, CONTENT, SYSTEM

Let's move on to the most important part of the organization - management. Management- This is a subject area that explores the impact of individuals, groups on their behavior within organizations in order to improve the effectiveness of their activities.

Management- this is the activity of the organization's team to achieve its goals based on the strategy, policy and methods for solving management problems using management technologies.

There are other definitions of management, but in all there is a factor of managing people. This factor in the organization is important both in terms of results and in terms of
the very process of this activity. The most important component
management is the behavior of employees. Management itself serves to integrate the behavior and activities of employees for the effective solution of all types of organizational problems.

The behavior of the organization consists of the totality of the behavior of all its members, the relationship of individual units, the interaction of formal and informal groups. Human behavior in an organization should be predictable, appropriate and formalized and should contribute to successful implementation goals and missions.

The management of the organization includes several elements that exist in the organization, which have relationships with each other and, in addition, interact with the elements of the organization. The elements of organizational management are culture, leadership, motivation, style, conflicts, power, Social responsibility, communications, group dynamics, business ethics, managerial decisions.

Management is related to organizational behavior, which explores the impact of individuals, groups and structures on the behavior of people within an organization in order to improve the effectiveness of its activities. Organizational behavior- is the activity of the organization's team to achieve its goals.

The term " behavior” means actions performed by a person. This includes not only physical, but also speech and writing activities, non-verbal manifestations - gestures and facial expressions, as well as clothing, choosing a place at the dinner table or at a meeting, choosing literature for reading, and much more that is peculiar only to this particular person and can be observed. .

In this case, we are not interested in how one or another component of behavior can be called - conscious, subconscious or unconscious, just as we are not interested in the causes of human behavior - objective or subjective. We are only interested in what is observable.

Sometimes you need to change the behavior of a person in the workplace. But in reality it turns out that the behavior of the worker can be changed only for a short time and, moreover, only superficially. For example, if you threaten an employee that he will be fired for smoking in prohibited places, his behavior will change: he will smoke in another place - where this, in fact, is also prohibited, but is outside the watchful eye of the boss. Directly changing a person's behavior is very difficult. The organization needs to make consistent, constructive and long-term changes in the behavior of the employees of the organization in order to increase its effectiveness.

Position is what makes a person behave in a certain way. The main characteristic of the position is that it is inherent only to this individual person: it is not amenable to external observation, full understanding, and even more so direct change.

The term " perception" means the methods by which a person forms or changes his position under the influence of external factors. Perception depends on the events taking place in the surrounding real world. Perception is not a fact, it is a reflection of facts in the mind of a person. The same object, when viewed by three different people, will be displayed differently in their minds. A change in perception may lead to a change in attitude, which may lead to a change in behavior. But in each case it happens differently. The following factors must be taken into account here.

In order to explain the manifestations of organizational behavior in certain actions of employees, it is important to understand what factors determine the formation of cooperation between employees in an organization. At the same time, it is important to identify the reverse aspect as well. And it consists in understanding those factors that lead to confrontation, destroying cooperation. If we proceed from the fact that the behavior of employees in an organization consists, on the one hand, of a “acting person”, who manifests himself in “interactions-counteractions”, and on the other hand, of a “communicating person”, who feels himself involved - alienated in a communicative space of the organization, it turns out that it is possible in general view define a concept organizational behavior.

This concept describes the ways of cooperation - confrontation of workers, which depend on their interactions - counteractions, as well as on their involvement in the organization or their alienation from it.

This implies the subject of organizational behavior, which lies precisely in this concept. To study this subject means to reveal the deep moral and psychological secrets of managing an organization.

The problem of "confrontation - cooperation" turns out to be the main moral and psychological contradiction of organizational behavior, which is either overcome or aggravated. The degree of its solvability is the main indicator of how successfully organizational management is carried out. Higher professional achievements managers in the organization become the effects of cooperation.

Situations in the range of "confrontation - cooperation" occur throughout the organization: and vertically ("top-down" and "bottom-up"), that is, between managers and employees subordinate to them; and horizontally: between the employees themselves, between divisions, between services and between different corporate links. Therefore, in organizations, a certain management system is being formed, reproduced, reformed, and developed, which provides the necessary balancing of organizational behavior.

Organizational behavior- these are the actions of employees involved in certain management processes, having their own cycles, rhythms, paces, their own structure of relations, their organizational framework and requirements for employees. These processes, on the one hand, are directed by the leaders of all levels of management, and on the other hand, they are implemented in the behavior of direct participants.

Management processes can be formed spontaneously and purposefully. The ratio of spontaneity and purposefulness in management processes is an indicator of what the organizational environment of behavior is. If spontaneity prevails, then the behavior of workers is largely dependent on disorganizing factors, and therefore can be deformed and distorted. If purposefulness prevails, then it turns out to be largely dependent on organizing algorithms that are “set” by managers, because such algorithms may not take into account the entire motivational range of employees. Find " golden mean"and" build "organizational order so that it optimizes the organizational environment is very difficult.

Organizational behavior can be understood if we imagine that it arises and is constantly reproduced at the intersection of two main organizing forces: subordinate (subordinating employees “from top to bottom”) and coordinating (coordinating links and levels of management that are heterogeneous in position, as well as personal managerial interests).

The state of "participation - estrangement" can manifest itself in a very contradictory way. The completeness of the employee's involvement in the affairs of the organization depends primarily on how much the organization, represented by its leaders, stimulates him to self-discovery of his capabilities and self-giving of his "I". After all, a person can work both out of a sense of duty and out of a sense of passion for his work. If a person works enthusiastically, and the leaders of the organization do not react to this in any way, then he develops a complex of non-recognition of his own “I”. A paradox arises when, doing what he loves, he is increasingly alienated from the organization. This paradox manifests itself in the painful experience of the bifurcation of his social
status that is both high and low at the same time. And the leaders believe: "The organization pays, everyone should work!".

If the state of involvement expresses the deep need of human nature to be a member of a local community, then the state of alienation reflects the formation of consciousness, delimited from the zones that traumatize the worker's psyche. This self-restriction depends, first of all, on what needs of the employee are blocked by the organization represented by its leaders.

If the deep need of the individual to recognize her merits is blocked, then the personal “I” splits into “I am here” and “I am not here”, and then the employee begins to look for a job, sending out a resume to recruitment agencies. But often there are situations when he, while limiting himself from the organization, at the same time finds himself attached to it in a perverted form. This happens in situations where an employee experiences discrimination from management, but does not leave the organization because its image is very attractive. He consoles himself with the fact that he works for a "prestigious organization". Especially when, while communicating with acquaintances, he hears: “Oh, you work in such an organization! And in such a position! The employee is pleased, although in fact he thinks in a completely different way: “If only they knew what was really going on in the organization! Management doesn't care about us!" This is the opposite paradox, when the employee is illusory attached to the organization, although in fact he is alienated from it.

personality in an organization. For a long time, philosophers have tried to identify the patterns of certain forms of personality behavior, to determine why it is easy to find a common language with one person, and with another - there is no way, what determines the logic of the behavior of an individual.

Behavior is a form of interaction between an individual and the environment, which depends on a number of factors. The main factors characterizing the personality and its behavior include: the natural properties of the individual, his individual psychological characteristics, the system of needs, motives, interests and the personality management system, its "I-image".

Natural properties of the individual- this is what is inherent in it from birth and is characterized by one or another degree of expression of such dynamic characteristics as activity and emotionality. The activity of the individual is expressed in the desire for various kinds of activity, the manifestation of oneself, the strength and speed of the flow of mental processes, motor reactions, i.e. acts as a property of the individual's activity. Its expression is, on the one hand, great energy, swiftness in movement, activity, speech, and on the other hand, lethargy, passivity of mental activity, speech, gestures. Emotionality is manifested in varying degrees of nervous excitability of the individual, the dynamics of feelings that characterize the attitude to the world. Personal qualities have a significant impact on the development and maintenance of professionalism, career advancement, salary, respect for employees and other factors.

Let's take a closer look at the elements of work management.

Organization culture at work is a complex composition of important assumptions, unprovenly accepted and shared by members of the organization. Culture is interpreted as a philosophy and ideology of management, including value orientations, expectations and norms that underlie relations both within the organization and outside it. Values ​​guide people in the direction of behavior that is considered acceptable or not.

An attribute of organizational culture is the symbolism through which values ​​are presented to members of the organization. There are organizations that create documents that describe values ​​in detail. In addition, there are "walking" stories, legends and myths that are passed down orally, but sometimes have more impact than the values ​​of an advertising booklet.

The basic assumptions that the members of the organization adhere to are related to the person's vision of the environment (groups, organizations, society) and the variables that regulate it (nature, work, etc.).

Organizational culture has a certain structure. It can be viewed on three levels:

external facts– technology, architecture, patterns of behavior ;

valuable - orientation and beliefs, verifiable in the physical environment, verifiable only through social consensus (arrangement);

basic assumptions–relationship with nature, understanding of the reality of time and space, attitude to man, attitude to work.

Knowledge of organizational culture starts from the first level, includes such visible external facts as the technology used, the use of space and time, observed behavior, language, slogans, etc., i.e. everything that can be felt and perceived through known senses.

At the second level, the values ​​and beliefs of the organization shared by its members are examined insofar as these values ​​are reflected in symbols and language.

The third level includes elements that are difficult to comprehend even by the members of the organization without special focus on this issue. In particular, the hidden aspirations of people, especially leaders, which determine the behavior of people.

Organizational culture is associated with the physical environment: the building itself and its design, location, equipment, furniture, colors and amount of space, amenities, cafeteria, reception rooms, parking lots, cars.

awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization;

communication system and language of communication;

appearance, clothing and representation at work;

catering for employees;

awareness of time and its use;

relationships between people by age and gender, status and power, wisdom and intelligence, experience and knowledge, etc.;

values ​​and norms;

belief in something and attitude, disposition towards something;

employee development process;

work ethic and motivation.

There are other interpretations of the content of organizational culture. Most of the elements of management in one way or another can be attributed to culture. However, this is impractical, since otherwise it is not possible to study these elements, as well as to measure or evaluate these elements for subsequent change. Therefore, it is necessary, in our opinion, to exclude labor (business) ethics, motivation and communications from the above list.

The hallmark of organizational culture is
the relative order in which the basic assumptions that form it are located, incl. policies and principles that prevail in the event of conflicts or unusual situations.

Even within a single organization, there can be many "local" cultures carried by individuals or groups of people. These different subcultures can exist under the roof of one common culture. In addition, counter-cultures may exist in the organization, incl. such as direct opposition to the values ​​of the dominant organizational culture, opposition to the power structure, opposition to patterns of relationships and interactions.

All organizations solve two important problems: external adaptation - what should be done by the organization and how it should be done; internal integration - how the employees of the organization solve their own problems related to their work and life in the organization.

The main aspects of external adaptation of the organization:

defining a mission from the main tasks, choosing a strategy for using this mission;

setting "their" goals, achieving agreement on goals;

methods used to achieve the goal, reaching agreement on the methods used;

establishing criteria for measuring the results achieved;

actions in relation to individuals and groups not performing the task.

The main aspects of the internal integration of the organization:

common language and conceptual categories - a set of communication methods, defining the meanings of the language used and concepts;

group boundaries and criteria for entering and leaving groups - establishing signs of membership in the organization and its groups;

power and status - the assimilation of the rules for the acquisition, maintenance and loss of power, the distribution of statuses in the organization;

personal attitude - the establishment of rules about the level and nature of social relations between sexes, ages, etc.;

reward and punishment – ​​defining desirable and undesirable behavior;

ideology and religion - the definition of the significance of things that cannot be explained and controlled by the organization.

The "thickness" of an organizational culture is determined by the number of important assumptions shared by employees. A culture with many levels of beliefs and values ​​has a strong influence on the behavior of people in an organization. Sometimes these beliefs and values ​​are clearly ranked. Thus, a strong culture is "fatter" as it is shared by a larger number of workers, but it also defines priorities more clearly. There are ways to maintain organizational culture that go beyond hiring the right people and firing the wrong people.

Rituals include standard and repetitive team events held at a set time and on a special occasion to influence the behavior and understanding of employees of the organizational environment.

Rituals are a system of rituals that include planned actions that have an important "cultural" significance. The observance of rituals, rituals and ceremonies strengthens the self-determination of workers.

Communications (business communication), is an important part of the activity in the organization. You can be at least seven spans in your forehead and develop brilliant projects, but without the ability to clearly and tactfully express your thoughts, as well as listen to others, you will not be able to implement these projects. Business communication is definitely an art in which a sense of tact and a sense of contact with a partner play an essential role. There are certain methods that recommend how to express your thoughts correctly and in an accessible way. People have to communicate in writing and orally, in person and by phone.

When communicating, people listen not only to verbal information, but also look into each other's eyes, perceive the timbre of the voice, intonation, facial expressions, and gestures (Fig. 12). Words convey logical information, and gestures, facial expressions, voice complement this information.

Verbal

non-verbal

Oral

Written

facial expressions

Language of the body

Voice

Rice. 12. Types of communication

When receiving a written message, you can see not only the words, but also the envelope, stamp, paper, arrangement and selection of text, font. All this creates an additional impression of the letter, either strengthening the verbal content or weakening it.

Non-verbal communication - communication without the help of words - often arises unconsciously. It can complement and reinforce verbal communication or contradict it. Although non-verbal communication is often an unconscious process, it is currently well understood and can be successfully controlled to achieve the desired effect.

Non-verbal communication is the most ancient and basic form of communication. Our ancestors communicated with each other with the help of body inclination, facial expressions, timbre, voice intonation, breathing rate, gaze. People still often understand each other without words. Non-verbal language is so powerful and general that people often have no trouble getting a dog to understand what it wants.

Verbal (verbal) communication- the acquisition of our relatively recent past, which arose along with abstract (logical) thinking. In this aspect, these two types of thinking have fundamental differences.

Non-verbal communication is not as highly structured as verbal communication. But there are generally accepted dictionaries and layout rules (grammar) of gestures, facial expressions, intonations, with the help of which people are able to unambiguously convey their feelings.

Such a transfer depends on very many factors and is often ambiguous. Intentional transmission is a creative process that film and theater artists are professionally engaged in. At the same time, each artist conveys the same role in different ways. I had to see the same roles performed by different artists, the same films made by different directors. Deliberately conveying feelings we don't have is a difficult, if not impossible, process.

Part of non-verbal language is universal: all babies cry and laugh the same way. For example, gestures vary across cultures. Non-verbal communication usually occurs spontaneously. People formulate their thoughts in the form of words, postures. Facial expressions and gestures arise involuntarily, in addition to our consciousness.

Verbal communication. Emotions and feelings are easily conveyed without words. Without words, you can ask to perform simple actions, for example, call someone. The transfer of complex information, as well as the implementation of complex work together, require communication using words (Fig. 13).

Verbal communication is based on language and grammar and can be both oral and written. AT business communication slightly less than half of the time is spent listening, slightly less than a third speaking, and one-fourth reading and writing.

Verbal communication

Thought transfer

Deliberately

Idea Formation

Putting ideas into words

Word transmission

Word perception

Reconstruction of meaning

Validation

Rice. 13. Verbal communication

In communication, one has not only to express one's point of view in writing or orally, but also to perceive the opinions of other people. At the same time, it is often the ability to perceive someone else's point of view and show the interlocutor that he was understood that becomes critical for organizing a constructive dialogue.

When receiving information, one should concentrate on it, interpret, evaluate and highlight the meaning in order to then perceive it. It is useful to rephrase the perceived meaning to the interlocutor as a signal that he is understood and he does not need to express his thought again. After that, as part of a constructive conversation, it is advisable to tell the interlocutor what we support in his idea, what we doubt and what we strongly disagree with. In the process of communication, an idea is formed, it is clothed in words that are spoken or written, the partner receives the message, perceives the message, extracts and interprets information, evaluates and retains the semantic part, the partner’s reaction and sending the message back.

The process is repeated as needed until either the partners understand each other and agree on joint activities or will not give up trying to understand each other and agree on their views.

Communication begins with the formation of an idea that reflects our understanding of the real world. The real world is objective and exists independently of our consciousness, but its perception by us is unique and depends on our characteristics.

Perception and picture of the world depend on education, gender, culture, mental warehouse. different faces have different pictures of reality, which should be considered during business communication.

Power. The concept of " power" means the ability of a person to influence others in order to subordinate them to his will. It allows the leader to manage the actions of subordinates, direct them in line with the interests of the organization, encourage them to work more efficiently, and prevent conflicts that arise. Many different approaches to the classification of power have been developed. All sources of power are divided into two large groups. The first group includes those sources of power that have a personal basis, the second - an organizational basis, it is also called structural-situational. The basis of power is that from which it comes, and the source of power is that through which this basis used.

Under expert authority is understood as the ability of a leader to influence the behavior of subordinates due to their training and level of education, experience and talent, skills and abilities, as well as the availability of specialized knowledge. Expert power is not rigidly tied to a specific position. The level of expert power is determined by the level at which the leader demonstrates his competence in the activities of subordinates.

Specialization in knowledge limits the exercise of expert power. The disadvantage of such power is that at present, knowledge is rapidly aging and requires constant updating, which is far from always possible to implement in a timely manner; the complexities of the surrounding world do not exclude the possibility that they will turn out to be biased and with their help it will not be possible to achieve the required results, which, of course, does not contribute to the strengthening of power.

The Power of Example associated with the ability of the leader to influence the behavior of subordinates due to his attractiveness, the presence of his charisma. Charisma is power based on the strength of the leader's personal qualities. The power of example is often formed as the subordinate identifies himself with his leader, up to imitating him in everything. This desire imperceptibly brings the imitator under the influence of the one whom he imitates. The more a leader is an ideal for someone, the more he is respected, thereby reinforcing his personal power base.

A charismatic personality provides weak-willed people deprived of their “I” with support, gives the necessary self-confidence. The disadvantage of the power of example is that such power is very fragile, since it is based primarily on emotions, which, as you know, are very changeable.

Formally, managers holding the same positions have equal rights. However, each of them uses the right given to him within the limits of his abilities. This is manifested in the fact that each leader, as it were, has a different right to power. In many cases, this source of power may be the only one, especially when the organization is just being formed. Here it is important to obtain recognition from subordinates of the right to power, which is associated with the use of other sources of power. In addition, the source of power under consideration, unlike others, has clearer boundaries for the application of this power within the rights and responsibilities granted to the head.

The power of information based on the ability to access the desired and important information and the ability to use it to influence subordinates. The information received allows its owner to receive optimal solutions and thereby exercise power. Coordination of information flows and control over the communication network make a person powerful. Information plays an important role in shaping the power of the leader. This is of particular importance in the age of universal computerization. Information power should be distinguished from expert power, which is concerned with understanding or the ability to use data. Thus, for example, assistants and secretaries often possess a significant amount of information, but this does not mean that they have expert power, especially in special areas. They can help prepare information for a decision, but not make a decision.

Need for power how the desire to have an influence on others is manifested in the following: giving persistent advice and the desire to help; evoking emotions in others; strengthening your reputation.

Decision-making as a source of power manifests itself to the extent that the bearer of this power can influence specific solution throughout the entire adoption process. Therefore, this source of power is not associated only with the one who makes the final decision. Modern management practice virtually excludes decision-making by one person. Almost all decisions are, to one degree or another, group decisions, because more than one person is involved in their preparation, adoption and implementation.

When rewarding a subordinate, the manager uses it as a source of power. Depending on the expected level of compensation received from the manager in the form of gratitude, promotion, bonus, additional leave etc., the subordinate makes certain efforts to fulfill the instructions or orders. Reward Power It is one of the oldest and most widely used sources of power in an organization.

This type of power is enough effective way influence on people. The power of reward is often used to reinforce the right to power. To a large extent, the strength of the power of remuneration is determined by the level of formal right to power. Managers can weaken the power of this source by making promises to reward work and not keeping those promises. This also leads to the encouragement of subordinates who have not completed the assigned tasks.

Compulsion as a source of power, it is built on the realization by the head of his ability to influence the behavior of a subordinate through punishment, reprimands, fines, demotion, dismissal, etc. Subordinates follow orders because they are afraid of being punished. Therefore, the perception of this source of power is based on fear.

Power based on legal coercion or its possibility is called administrative; it exists both in state and non-state organizations - the main thing is that their activities and the corresponding requirements of leaders are officially regulated.

Belief is an effective way of conveying your point of view. The leader, as it were, “sells” to the performer information about what needs to be done and how. Using persuasion, the leader tacitly assumes that the performer has some degree of power that may reduce the leader's ability to act, otherwise the leader recognizes dependence on the performer. In this case, the leader uses logic or emotions. Effective persuasion depends on the strength of the arguments, the timbre of the voice, the explanation of the benefits for the person being persuaded, and so on.

Disadvantages: slow impact and uncertain results. This requires more effort than issuing a decree backed by power, based on coercion or charisma.

Advantages: is a democratic method. Sometimes the performer does more than what is asked of him, believing that his actions will help meet personal needs at all levels. The person who receives the order usually carries it out to a minimum.

Participation (attraction) is the best way. The leader does not apply great effort in order to impose his will or opinion on the performer, he simply directs his efforts and facilitates the exchange of information. This influence is also successful because people, inspired by high-level needs, work harder towards the goal that is formulated with their participation. This determination, based on unity, can affect both the performer and the leader in the same way. Participation in decision making explicitly addresses a higher level need: success or self-expression. This approach has a positive impact on productivity and job satisfaction.

Leadership. Power and its sources in an organization are closely related to leadership. Leadership is based on relations of dominance and subordination, influence and following in the system of interpersonal relations in a group. Leadership is one of the important mechanisms for exercising power in a group and, perhaps, the most effective one. Leadership is the ability to effectively use all available sources of power to turn the vision created for others into reality. Leaders use power as a means to achieve the goals of a group or organization.

If the leaders achieve the goal, then power as a means is used by them to accelerate this achievement. Compatibility of goals is not necessarily required for the existence of power. Leadership, in order to be realized, requires a certain correspondence between the goals of the leader and the goals of those who follow him. Power itself can be built on personal qualities or position in the organization. In addition, power is a two-way relationship between the leader and subordinates and the leader and his boss. The effectiveness of leadership depends on the amount and type of power that the leader uses in relation to subordinates and his boss. Leaders are distinguished by certain qualities: intelligence, desire for knowledge, responsibility, activity, reliability. The structure of the leader's personal qualities should correspond to the qualities of the leader and his position. There are two approaches to leadership: behavioral and situational.

Behavioral Approach to leadership is characterized by demeanor, style of activity and attitude towards subordinates. situational approach the leader is guided by the needs and tasks of subordinates, the nature of the task, the requirements of the environment, the needs of partners. Such a leader is clearly oriented in situations.

The management grid of Blake and Mouton(Fig. 14) defines the main types of approaches in the coordinates of attitudes towards work and people. The key grid points are shown below.

(A) The power of subordination - the effectiveness of management depends on the creation of such working conditions, where the human aspects are present at a minimum degree (1,9).

(B) Impoverished management - applying minimal effort to maintain the position of the head (1.1).

(B) Group management - production success is due to the promotion of their work by people, the creation of relationships based on trust and respect (9,9).

(D) Country club management - meticulous attention to meeting people's needs (9.1).

(E) Organized management - medium balance between attitude towards work and people (5.5).

Warm human relations and freedom of action is more pleasant than dry engineering calculations and rigid structured tasks. However, this does not always lead to a high degree of productivity and satisfaction of people. There are people who do not have an active need for a more difficult task or routine, so they cannot feel that any of their needs are being met.

There are several theories of leadership.

AT Fiedler's situational leadership model The main factors influencing the behavior of the leader are:

relations between the leader and team members - imply the loyalty shown by subordinates, their trust in the leader and the attractiveness of the leader's personality;

task structure - implies the familiarity of the task, the clarity of its formulation and structuring;

authority is the amount of legal authority associated with the position of the head, which allows him to use remuneration, as well as the level of support that the organization provides to the head.

The potential advantage of a task-oriented leadership style is speed of action and decision-making, unity of purpose, or strict control over the work of subordinates.

According to Fiedler, autocracy is initially an effective tool for achieving the goals of the organization, provided that the performers willingly cooperate with the leader. Fiedler's situational approach is an excellent means of emphasizing the importance of interaction between the manager, the performer and the situation. His approach cautions against the notion that there is one optimal leadership style independent of circumstances.

The path-goal approach of Mitchell and House. The term "path-goal" refers to the concepts of expectation theory, incl. to such as effort - performance, performance - results (reward), the perceived value of the reward.

This approach explains the impact that the behavior of the leader on the motivation, satisfaction and productivity of subordinates. Techniques that influence the means to achieve goals:

clarification of what is expected of the subordinate;

providing support, mentoring and removing obstacles;

directing the efforts of subordinates to achieve the goal;

creating in subordinates such needs that are within the competence of the leader, which he can satisfy;

meeting the needs of employees in achieving the goal.

The support style is similar to the person or relationship oriented style. The instrumental style is similar to the work or task oriented style, but two new styles have been added.

The life cycle theory of Hersey and Blanchard. The most effective leadership styles depend on the "maturity" of the performers. By "maturity" is meant the ability to take responsibility for one's behavior, the desire to achieve the set goal, as well as the qualifications and experience in relation to the specific tasks to be performed. There are four leadership styles that correspond to a particular level of maturity of the performer:

"instruction" - it is suitable for subordinates with low level maturity who are either unwilling or unable to take responsibility for a specific task and require instructions and strict supervision;

"sale" - in this situation, subordinates want to take responsibility, but they cannot, because they do not have an average level of maturity. Here the leader must maintain the enthusiasm and desire to complete the task;

"participation" is characterized a high degree maturity of (moderately) subordinates. Here subordinates can, but do not always want to, be responsible for completing the task. Managers can increase the motivation and involvement of their subordinates by giving them the opportunity to participate in decision making, without imposing their own way of solving the task;

"delegation" - characterized by a high degree of maturity, when subordinates are both able and willing to be responsible for completing tasks.

adaptive leadership. To accurately assess the situation, the leader must be aware of the abilities of subordinates and his own, the nature of the given authority and the amount of information.

Many leaders actively seek promotion to positions of greater responsibility. In this regard, the leader has to adapt to new people, new tasks and situations. Therefore, the manager cannot apply any one style of leadership, even the best of all those listed above. The best style is one that focuses on reality, the situation. Leadership is to some extent an art, and this is the reason why scientists have not been able to develop a universal theory for all occasions.

Conflicts. Word " conflict" comes from the Latin conflictus, originally understood as a collision. This word in a rather close, but not identical, sense is used in social psychology. In many cases, conflict is understood as one of the forms of human interaction, which is based on various kinds of real or illusory, objective or subjective, to varying degrees, perceived contradictions between people with attempts to resolve them against the background of the manifestation of emotions.

Conflict often arises in situations where the interests of different people or social groups collide in the process of achieving a goal. In an effort to achieve the goal, each individual consciously or unconsciously forms in the depths of his psyche a positive outcome of a particular activity. And when someone or something interferes with the implementation of this intention, the phenomenon of frustration is generated, causing a form of conflict state.

Usually under frustration understand one of the types of mental disorganization of the personality, caused by the subjective perception of obstacles on the way to the goal. Such obstacles vary in strength, but they are always social in nature. If obstacles
surmountable, faced with them, the person uses the tactics of circumvention and achieves the goal of his aspirations, frustration does not arise here. If the individual encounters insurmountable obstacles, the picture changes. It happens that the situation here allows you to find new goal activity, then also the matter goes without frustration. The phenomenon of frustration is generated if all possible ways towards achieving the goal.

But there is another no less significant subtext of the conflict, in particular, an attack on the self-esteem of the individual, the human "I". This subtext appears in the system interpersonal communication, in an organizational setting, when conducting mass events. Usually - these are the dressings of the authorities, various kinds of barbs of comedians, the study of people at collective events. Polls and observations show that tactless criticism often acts as a subtext. Although it is known that criticism is vital and necessary. It becomes the cause of the conflict only because it loses its main features - concern for common cause and publicity. Criticism in the absence of publicity is perceived by people without any enthusiasm, it gives rise to defensive reactions in them, and therefore usually leads to stress.

Conflict in varying degrees of its manifestation takes place in almost every meeting or conversation, but a conflict situation is especially often created during commercial negotiations. Conflicts are not antagonistic contradictions - they are really surmountable. All you need is patience and perseverance. The presence of these two qualities is a prerequisite for overcoming them. Therefore, it is not necessary to dramatize business conflict situations and critically set the participants on them. Each organization must be prepared for conflicts, know their causes, and also master the “technique” for overcoming and preventing emerging disagreements at the level of interpersonal communication. Conflicts cannot be ignored. The time factor can be decisive, since conflict and fire are terrible in their growth.

This is explained by the fact that the participants in the conflict are looking for support from others, they are especially trying to attract the leader to their side. The initial conflict is overgrown with new participants. At the same time, emotions are constantly growing. This indicates that having received information about the conflict, it is necessary to act, and not wait for it to escalate. However, conflicts are not only negative, but also positive.

Characteristic features conflict situation are:

establishing the facts of humiliation of the dignity of a person in an official or informal setting;

a sharp change in attitude to activities (functional duties);

evasion from fulfillment of instructions, orders of immediate (superior) superiors;

mutual or one-sided verbal or physical abuse;

isolation, solitude, depression of individuals in the conditions of activity;

formal statement of work on personnel management;

negative judgments about the environment, about colleagues.

The existence of conflicts in most organizations is denied for as long as possible. It is considered indecent to talk about certain issues about which other people or groups might have a different opinion. In order to more effectively enforce their own decisions, they are very often prepared in strict isolation from the opposite side. The adoption of partial decisions should show that the final decision is an inevitable consequence of the prevailing conditions.

An attack on one's own opinion is perceived as an attack on a higher organization. Often, resistance to reshuffling is interpreted as "resistance to the management of organizations" or as "it is interference in one's own area of ​​responsibility." The result is an increase in position polarizations.

Three main factors of reaction to conflict should be considered:

non-perception of the conflict as a personal insult. Conflicts that serve the cause are not related to oneself;

putting yourself in the place of the other side;

lack of haste in the formation of conclusions. Some time is needed to comprehend the situation.

Changing the attitude towards conflicts practically means changing the outlook on life. A new look at conflicts allows you to confidently and even creatively find a way out of them. Seeing in failures or in the difficulties of new opportunities - important step to turn the nightmare of conflicts into finding solutions.

In difficult situations, always look for the perfect solution. Such a search may not only put us in a stalemate, but in itself may be inexpedient. You need to look for a working solution that will change a specific situation, behavior and thinking. A look at the problems, incl. and on conflicts as something positive can be useful: it can transform your thinking and help you find a solution.

One of better ways avoid conflict - change your thinking and statements. It is necessary to avoid negative predictions that tend to come true. Replace the thought “This is impossible” with the thought “This is an opportunity!” and you can see what will happen.

Motivation is a set of external and internal driving forces that encourage a person to think and act, set its boundaries and forms and give a certain direction. Knowing the needs of people, it is possible to develop effective system staff motivation. To do this, you need to know the mechanisms of the emergence of motives and bringing them into action. Needs arise and are inside a person, they are quite common for different people, but have a certain individual manifestation. Needs can be eliminated in the following way: satisfy, suppress or not respond to them.

The motive causes certain actions of a person, is located “inside” a person, depends on many external and internal factors in relation to a person, as well as on the action of other motives that arise in parallel with it.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs based on priorities according to which needs are met.

Primary needs are physiological (for example, food, water, sleep).

Security needs, i.e. in the environment, do not contain a threat to life, health, etc.

Social needs are the need to belong to a particular social group, in love and affection, i.e. the need for the approval of others and for warm relationships with members of their group.

The need for respect is the need for authority, self-respect, self-esteem.

The need for self-expression (the need to fully use one's capabilities, achieve goals and personal growth).

McClelland's theory of needs. He began his research not with how a person acts, but with how he thinks. At the same time, McClelland uses the so-called projective technique, based on the fact that the subject describes the picture shown to him in words. The basic premise is that the more ambiguous, obscure the picture is, the more likely the subject's story reveals his motives. McClelland argues that the thoughts expressed in such stories can be grouped so that they express three categories of human motives: the desire for belonging; need for power; the need to succeed or achieve a goal.

Herzberg Motivation Model was the result of a series of interviews with professionals who were asked to describe in detail the events that made them feel completely satisfied or dissatisfied with their work. According to Herzberg's findings, the responses received fall into two categories, which he called "hygienic factors" and "motivation."

Content theories of motivation are based on needs and related factors that determine people's behavior. Process theories analyze how a person distributes efforts to achieve various goals and how he chooses specific view behavior. They do not dispute the existence of needs, but they believe that people's behavior is determined not only by them. According to process theories, an individual's behavior is also a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a given situation, and the possible consequences of the type of behavior he has chosen.

Basic procedural theories of motivation: expectations, fairness and the Porter-Lawler model.

expectation theory, often associated with the works of V. Vroom, is based on the position that the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition motivation of a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must hope that the type of behavior he has chosen will lead to the satisfaction or acquisition of the desired.

Justice theory postulates that people subjectively determine the ratio of the reward received to the effort expended and then correlate it with the reward of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, i.e. a person believes that his colleague received a greater reward for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. As a result, it is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve stress and, in order to restore justice, remove the imbalance.

Porter-Lawler model. It is a complex procedural theory of motivation, including elements of expectation theory and equity theory. Five variables appear in their model: effort expended, perception, results obtained, reward, degree of satisfaction. The results achieved by an employee depend on three variables: the effort expended, abilities and characteristic features of a person, as well as from his awareness of his role in the labor process. The level of effort expended depends on the value of the reward and how much the person believes there is a strong relationship between the effort expended and the possible reward. Achieving the required level of performance can result in intrinsic rewards such as job satisfaction, a sense of competence and self-respect, as well as extrinsic rewards such as managerial praise, bonuses, promotions.

Work motivation - the most important factor performance, and in this capacity it forms the basis of the labor potential of the employee, i.e., the entire set of properties that affect production activities. Labor potential consists of psycho-physiological (a person's abilities and inclinations, his state of health, working capacity, endurance, type of nervous system) and personal (motivational) potentials. In this unity of the abilities and capabilities of the individual, the motivational potential plays the role of a trigger that determines what abilities and to what extent the employee will develop and use in the process of work.

Creating more challenging and responsible jobs has a positive motivational effect on many workers, but not all. The leader must always keep in mind the element of chance. What turns out to be effective in motivating some people turns out to be completely unimportant for others. In addition, organization by its very nature complicates the practical implementation of theories of motivation focused on a particular individual.

Since different people have different needs, they evaluate the specific reward differently. Therefore, the management of the organization must match the proposed remuneration with the needs of employees and bring them into line. For effective motivation the manager must learn the relationship between the achieved result and remuneration, and it is desirable to ensure that remuneration is most acceptable to employees.

The main conclusion of the theory of justice for the practice of management is that as long as people do not begin to believe that they receive a fair remuneration, they will tend to reduce the intensity of work. Since the productivity of employees who assess their remuneration as unfair (due to the fact that another person doing the same job gets more) will fall, they need to be told and explained why there is such a difference. It should be made clear that the higher paid colleague gets more because he has more experience that allows him to produce even more.

group dynamics. In the entire chain of interrelated human resources management activities, from hiring an employee to leaving the organization, from 50 to 80% of managers' time is spent on group activities. The effectiveness of a leader is closely related to understanding the characteristics of group work and the ability to act correctly as a member of the management team and manage their own work group.

Group is a relatively separate entity. a small amount people (usually no more than 10) who are in a fairly stable interaction and carry out joint actions for a sufficiently long period of time. The interaction of group members is based on a certain common interest and may be associated with the achievement of a common goal. The group has a certain group potential, group capabilities that allow it to interact with the environment and adapt to changes taking place in the environment.

Most people belong to several groups. Individuals participate in many groups: family, educational, organizational, party, interest, etc. The group is a natural and inevitable part of human life. There are permanent, temporary and occasional groups.

Some groups are free. They are entered at will. Others are binding (when born, we do not choose a family, ethnic group or nation).

An organization of any size is made up of several groups, mainly because of the need for a division of labor. Large organizations have hundreds and thousands of small groups.

Group development stages:

formation (development of goals and work procedures, establishing relationships, subordination, acquaintance and working out roles, finding out the “cost” of being in a group);

seething (aggravation of problems, conflicts, aggravation of feelings, struggle for power, oppression from exploitation by a group, situation management);

normalization (they begin to think about work, tolerance for the other, compromise, rules for work are established, the development of cohesion, cooperation, shared responsibility develops);

activity (roles are accepted and understood, the manifestation of the "group" effect, the development of work standards, culture, interaction);

disbandment (dissolution, departure of the leader, disappearance of the target, bureaucratic difficulties).

Formal groups created by the will of the management for the organization production process. Formal groups are characterized by an organized structure. Social relations here are impersonal and are carried out through predetermined roles. These roles tend to be formalized according to the norms defined by external environment, culture. There are three main types of formal groups: leadership group, groups, committees.

The group of leaders consists of leaders and their direct reports, who, in turn, can be leaders of groups. An example of such a group is the store manager and the heads of his departments.

Groups include the manager and his subordinates who are involved in the operational process (foreman and worker, store department manager and salespeople).

The Committee is a temporary administrative entity, which may include specialists from various departments of organizations. The leader may be appointed or elected. After the end of the work, the committee is dissolved.

The effective management of each formal group within an organization is critical. These interrelated groups are the building blocks that make up the organization. The organization as a whole is able to effectively fulfill its global tasks only if the tasks of each of its structural divisions coordinated in such a way as to support each other's activities.

In addition, the group as a whole influences the behavior of the individual. Therefore, the better the leader understands the specifics of the group’s activities and the factors of its effectiveness, and the better he knows the art of effective group management, the more likely he will be able to increase the productivity of this unit and the organization as a whole.

Along with formal groups, in every formal organization there is a complex interweaving of informal groups that have formed without the intervention of management.

The formal organization is created at the behest of the management, but once it is created, it also becomes social environment, where people interact by no means according to the instructions of the leadership. From social relationships, many friendly groups, informal groups, are born, which together constitute an informal organization.

Informal organizations is a spontaneously formed group of people who enter into regular interaction to achieve a specific goal. The informal group has much in common with the formal organizations in which they are inscribed. Informal organizations also have a hierarchy of leaders and tasks. In an informal group, there are personal social relationships that are carried out in roles determined by the internal environment. The content of roles is the result of interaction in the group. The main reasons for joining an informal group are: belonging, helping, protecting, communicating, close association and liking.

Characteristics of informal groups (organizations):

social control. In order to be accepted by a group and have a stable position in it, a person must comply with certain norms. Each group has rules regarding dress, behavior, communication, types of work, etc. social control also influences the achievement of the goals of the formal organization;

resistance or support for innovation. Changes in the organization may pose, in the opinion of the group, threats to the activities

Introduction

II. The main stages of the management process

III.Typology of the management process

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of studying this topic, in our opinion, is directly related to the fact that the management process, although it plays a very specific role in the organization, nevertheless, as it were, permeates the entire organization, touching and affecting almost all areas of its activity.

However, it should be noted that with all the variety of interaction between management and organization, it is possible to establish with a sufficient degree of clarity the boundaries of the activity that constitutes the content of the management process.

The process of management and within the organization itself has a certain specificity. O. S. Vikhansky and A. I. Naumov in their reasoning emphasize that the positions of management within the organization itself are mainly determined by the purpose and role that this or that organization is called upon to fulfill. In intraorganizational life, management plays the role of a coordinating principle that forms and sets in motion the resources of the organization to achieve certain goals.

Control how the process shapes and changes when needed internal environment organization, which is an organic combination of such components as structure, internal organizational processes, technology, personnel, organizational culture, and manages the functional processes occurring in the organization.

The subject of the study is the management process.

The object of research is the content of the management process.

Based on the foregoing, the purpose of this work is the need to characterize the content component of the management process.

Achieving this goal, in our opinion, involves solving the following tasks:

1. To highlight the content of the management process.

2. Identify and characterize the main stages of the management process.

3. Classify the management process.

In the process of writing this work, we used following methods:

1. Analysis of sources and used literature.

2. Comparative method.

This work was written using normative sources and educational literature.

I. The content of the management process

Organization management appears as a process of implementing a certain type of interrelated actions to form and use the organization's resources to achieve its specific goals.

V. R. Vesnin emphasizes that management as an activity is implemented in a set of management processes, that is, targeted decisions and actions carried out by managers in a certain sequence and combination.

He emphasizes the fact that these management processes are improved along with the development of the organization itself.

He also draws attention to the fact that management processes contain both hard, formal elements, such as rules, procedures, official powers, and rather soft ones, like leadership style and organizational values. The purpose of a particular management process, as the author emphasizes, is to change or vice versa to preserve the existing management situation, that is, the totality of those circumstances that have, or may in the future have an impact on the development of the organization itself.

O. S. Vikhansky and A. I. Naumov in their reasoning emphasize that the management of an organization appears as a process of implementing a certain set of specific interrelated actions.

They point to the peculiarity of the management process that, in its meaningful interpretation, it is not equivalent to all the activities of the organization to achieve certain interrelated goals, but includes only those functions and actions that are associated with coordination and establishing interaction within the organization, with an incentive to implement production and other activities (see Fig. 1).

The content and set of actions and functions carried out in the management process, according to O. S. Vikhansky and A. I. Naumov, directly depend both on the type of organization (business, administrative, public, educational, military), on the size of the organization, as well as from the scope of its activities (production of goods or the provision of services), from the level of the management hierarchy (top management, middle-level management, lower level of management), from the function within the organization (production, marketing, personnel, finance) and many more factors.

However, despite all the diversity, as A. Fayol drew attention to this back in 1916, the management process within an organization is characterized by the presence of, in general, homogeneous types of activities.

Thus, we can conclude that, according to O. S. Vikhansky and A. I. Naumov, the functional content is characteristic of the management process. That is, the authors believe that it is possible to group all types of management activities into four main management functions:

1) planning, which consists in choosing goals and an action plan to achieve them;

2) the function of the organization, through which the distribution of tasks between individual units or employees, as well as the establishment of interaction between them;

3) leadership, consisting in motivating performers to carry out planned actions and achieve goals;

4) control, which consists in correlating the actual results achieved with those that were planned.

L. E. Basovsky also draws attention to the existence of a functional component as a content side of the management process. He defines the management process as a continuous sequence of interrelated actions to implement the functions of planning, organization, motivation and control.

There are other definitions of the content component of the management process.

According to A. I. Orlov and V. N. Fedoseev, the term "management process" refers to a set of coordinated activities aimed at achieving the goals.

W. Siegert gives the following definition: "Management is such a management of people and such use of funds that allows you to perform the tasks in a humane, economical and rational way." To this we must add that goal-setting, i.e. the choice of goals and the formulation of tasks also applies to management.

Moreover, goal setting is one of the main responsibilities of managers, especially the first leaders.

Thus, we can conclude that among the authors - theorists in the field of management, there is no single point of view on the interpretation of the content side of the management process.

Nevertheless, the analysis of the above interpretations shows a functional orientation in considering the content of the management process.

II. The main stages of the management process

The management process consists of the alternation of certain stages and manifests itself as a continuous sequence of purposeful actions of the management apparatus and the leader to achieve certain results.

In our opinion, the process of dividing into stages is a certain analytical tool that will allow us to identify both the patterns of the management process and identify those ways that will be able to improve it in a certain way.

Based on the foregoing, it is possible to define the stage of the management process as a set of management operations, actions, which is characterized by qualitative certainty and uniformity and reflects the need for their existence.

Traditionally, the management process is presented in the form of successive stages, such as goal setting, situation assessment, problem definition, development management decision.

Schematically, this process is shown in Fig. 2

A different view of the problem under consideration is contained in O. S. Vikhansky and A. I. Naumov.

According to these authors, the logical scheme of the control process is as follows. The initial beginning of the development of the management process is the emergence of new goals and the structuring of new tasks. Therefore, goal-setting can be considered as the first step towards a logical scheme for the development of management as a process.

The second step in this scheme is the development in the management system of a reaction to new tasks - a reaction that should lead to the development of the management process.

According to the authors, the emergence of three types of reactions is possible, which most prominently stand out from the whole variety of reactions differing in individual nuances that occur in the real practice of control transformation.

The first type is an attempt not to change anything in management or to make small, partial changes, focusing on identifying the causes that require change, and on eliminating them.

The second type is a stereotypical approach to solving emerging problems. This is most often an attempt to solve managerial problems practically regardless of their content, nature and dynamics with the help of previously justified approaches to the transformation of the management system. The most widespread stereotypical approach of this kind to solving any new problems is to carry out organizational restructuring in management, the creation of new management bodies.