The most universal, i.e. applicable to most goods and services are the requirements: purpose, safety, environmental friendliness, reliability, ergonomics, resource saving, manufacturability, aesthetics.

Destination requirements - requirements that establish the properties of the product, determining its main functions for which it is intended (productivity, accuracy, calorie content, speed of service execution, etc.), - functional suitability; composition and structure of raw materials and materials; compatibility* and interchangeability**.

Ergonomic requirements are the requirements for consistency of product design with the characteristics of the human body to ensure ease of use***.

Resource saving requirements are the requirements for the economical use of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy and labor resources.

Safety requirements - the absence of unacceptable risk associated with the possibility of causing damage.

Reliability requirements - preservation in time within the established limits of all parameters characterizing the ability to perform the required functions in specified modes and conditions of use, Maintenance, storage and transportation.

Environmental requirements - no harmful effects of products on the environment during production, operation and disposal.

Manufacturability requirements - the suitability of products for manufacturing, operation and repair at minimal cost with given quality indicators.

Aesthetic requirements are requirements for the ability of a product or service to express an artistic image, socio-cultural significance in sensually perceived by a person signs of form (color, spatial configuration, quality of finishing of a product or room).

Quality assessment is a set of operations performed to assess the conformity of a particular product to established requirements. Requirements are established in technical regulations, standards, specifications, contracts, technical specifications for product design. The carrier of the established requirements can also be standard samples, standard samples, analogous goods. Failure to meet a requirement is a nonconformity. The organization takes corrective action to eliminate the causes of nonconformity.

The main form of evaluation is control. Any control includes two elements: obtaining information about the actual state of the object (for products - about its qualitative and quantitative characteristics) and comparing the information received with established requirements for the purpose of determining compliance, i.e. obtaining secondary information.

Product quality control - control of quantitative and (or) qualitative characteristics of products.

The international standard ISO 8402 defines: "The quality loop is a conceptual model of interdependent activities that affect quality at various stages from the definition of needs to the assessment of their satisfaction."

Quality loop (according to the life cycle)

The quality loop should show how and with the help of what activities the impact on quality is carried out at different stages of the product life cycle.

3. Product quality is assessed on the basis of a quantitative measurement of its defining properties. Modern science and practice have developed a system for quantifying the properties of products, which give quality indicators. The classification of the properties of objects (goods and services) into the following groups is widespread, which give the corresponding quality indicators:

· indicators destination of goods,

reliability indicators,

technology indicators,

indicators of standardization and unification,

Ergonomic indicators,

aesthetic indicators,

transportability indicators,

patent and legal indicators,

environmental performance,

safety indicators.

With regard to the service, researchers L. Bury, A. Parasuraman, and V. Zeytaml also compiled a list of service quality indicators, finding that consumers use mostly simple criteria, regardless of the type of service. These criteria are:

Availability: the service is easy to get in a convenient place, at a convenient time, without unnecessary waiting for its provision,

Communication skills: the description of the service is made in the language of the client and is accurate,

Competence: maintenance personnel have the required skills and knowledge,

Helpfulness: the staff is friendly, respectful and caring,

Credibility: the company and its employees can be relied upon to truly strive to satisfy any customer needs,

Reliability: services are provided accurately and at a stable level,

· Responsiveness: employees are responsive and creative in solving problems and satisfying customer requests,

Security: the services provided do not carry any danger or risk and do not give rise to any doubt,

Tangibility: the tangible components of a service accurately reflect its quality,

· Understanding/knowing the customer: employees try to understand the needs of the customer as best as possible and each of them is given attention.

4. The terms qualitology and qualimetry are almost never used in library science, despite their interdisciplinary nature, so it is advisable to briefly review them. They entered scientific circulation in the 1960s.

The introduction of the term qualimetry, denoting the scientific discipline of studying and developing the principles and methods for quantifying quality, was preceded by a discussion. A group of researchers came to the conclusion that the scientific field, covering the methodological and practical issues of quantitative assessment of quality, needs a commonly used term of international sounding. It should be easy, convenient and suitable for all areas of theoretical and practical knowledge involved in quality assessment. The term qualimetry is adopted. It is based on two words kvali and metreo. In many languages, kwali means quality. The term turned out to be convenient. It is concise, accurately conveys the content of the concept of quality measurement, and its components are understandable in different languages. Derivative words are easily formed from it (qualimetric, qualimetric, etc.). It is noted that the term fits well into the system of concepts logically associated with it.

The science of quality has been called both qualomy and qualiology. Currently, the term qualitology is used. It denotes the science of quality, the structure of which includes the theory of quality and the theory of quality management, qualimetry and metrology. The term qualimetry is applied to scientific discipline studying the problems and methodology of quantitative and qualitative evaluation of objects of various nature.

Among the qualimetry used in various industries (construction, architecture, medicine, biology, sociology, the service sector, etc.), there is also psychological qualimetry. It is located at the intersection of psychology and qualimetry, serves the purposes of psychodiagnostics and psychometry, using a variety of methods ( expert assessments, generalizations of independent characteristics, semantic differential, sociometry, etc.). In psychological qualimetry, quantification is used - the reduction of qualitative assessments of mental phenomena to quantitative ones for the purpose of formalization through social quantifiers, for example, words (never; rarely; neither often nor rarely; often; always) and points (according to the method of polar profiles).

The term metrology is interpreted as a branch of science that studies and implements quality measurement methods. In the conceptual apparatus of qualitology and qualimetry, criteria, efficiency, measure and its synonym quality indicator are also distinguished. Among the types of quality measures there are quantitative and qualitative assessments. Qualitative assessments include a semantic measure of quality. Scaling is a measure of quality that introduces ordering relationships on the measured set of properties. The concept of semantic measure corresponds to semantic scaling. The understanding of qualimetric scaling includes all types of scaling: metric (ratios, differences, interval), ordinal, nominal, semantic (verbal) and their various combinations. To determine the values ​​of quality indicators, measuring, registration, ergonometric, analytical, expert and combined methods are used.

In specialized literature, the word quality is interpreted as derived from the words like, what. In practice, one of two interpretations is usually used - philosophical or industrial. The concept of quality in philosophical interpretation can also be applied to various models of practice, while it does not carry any assessments (which is worse, which is better), fixing different qualities, different properties, without denoting good or bad. In philosophy, this category is not of an evaluative nature, and therefore, in the philosophical interpretation of quality, it is meaningless to raise the question of measuring or otherwise evaluating quality.

In the production interpretation, the key concept is quality as a set of essential consumer properties of services that are significant for the consumer. The set of these properties forms the basis of standards, standards. With this interpretation, two signs of the quality of any service are distinguished: the presence of certain properties and the consideration of their value not from the standpoint of the service provider, but from the standpoint of the user.

5.a) Product quality control - control of quantitative and (or) qualitative characteristics of products.

The quality control procedure may include the operations of measurement, analysis, testing.

Measurements as an independent procedure are the object of metrology.

Analysis of products, in particular the structure and composition of materials and raw materials, is carried out by analytical methods: chemical analysis, microbiological analysis, microscopic analysis, etc.

Tests- a technical operation that consists in determining one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service in accordance with an established procedure.

An illustration of product quality control as a complex procedure is, for example, fabric quality control. It includes the control of qualitative characteristics (external defects, compliance with the approved sample - standard in color, pattern), control of quantitative characteristics by simple measurements (length, width, thickness), tests (for abrasion resistance, tensile strength), chemical analysis(determination of fibrous composition).

Let us consider in more detail the significance of testing as a procedure. The main means of testing is the test equipment. The test means also include basic and auxiliary substances and materials (reagents, etc.). used in testing.

During testing, various methods for determining the characteristics of products and services can be used: measuring, analytical, registration (determination of failures, damage), organoleptic (determination of characteristics using the senses).

At the place of testing, they are laboratory, field, full-scale. Testing of goods is carried out mainly in laboratory conditions.

The main requirement for the quality of the test is the accuracy and reproducibility of the results. The fulfillment of these requirements largely depends on compliance with the rules of metrology.

In recent years, laboratories themselves have begun to check the quality of testing themselves directly through interlaboratory comparative tests - parallel testing of a standard product or a sample of a substance with known characteristics in several controlled laboratories. The deviation of the test results by each laboratory of the characteristics of the standard object is judged on the accuracy and reproducibility of the results, i.e. about the quality of the tests of each laboratory.

For example, the Central Testing Center operating under the Ministry Agriculture The United States sends out to all local cotton laboratories every month two control samples of the standard, the indicators of which are encoded and entered in the data bank of the main computer (but they are not brought to the attention of local testers). Laboratories test the sent standards, and the received data is sent to the central office, where the results are compared by machine. In case of failure, information is sent to the local testing laboratories by telex: the test results do not correspond to the control ones; certificates issued in such and such a month cannot be recognized on the cotton exchange.

This scheme is called a “round test” - testing goes on, as it were, in a circle, continuously, putting testers in tough conditions: you must constantly maintain yourself in the best working condition (this applies to both technicians and specialists). If any laboratory "falls out of the circle" at least once, i.e. from the Register of centers admitted to the issuance of certificates, it will lose contracts for analysis.

To confirm the required quality of tests, laboratories must undergo an accreditation procedure. Laboratory Accreditation- official recognition that testing laboratories are authorized to carry out specific tests or concrete types tests.

In Russia, as well as abroad, there is a system of accreditation of testing, measuring and analytical laboratories.

According to the Rules for conducting certification in the Russian Federation, only an accredited testing laboratory is allowed to test specific products.

B) Product quality control

PRODUCT QUALITY CONTROL - verification of the conformity of the quality of a product or process on which it depends, to established requirements. Product quality control includes state supervision of product quality, departmental product quality control and technical quality control in associations, enterprises and organizations.

State supervision over product quality is carried out by the State Standard of the USSR and its bodies; it consists in monitoring compliance with standards, specifications and metrological rules, the state of measuring instruments and the work of standardization and metrology services in the field. Departmental quality control of products is carried out by quality inspections of the relevant ministries or departments.

Technical quality control of products is carried out at all stages of the production process, from the receipt of raw materials to shipment finished products. Its main functions are: establishing the conformity of product quality indicators with the requirements of design documentation, specifications, indicators of prototypes, obtaining information on the state of the production process, accounting, analysis and prevention of defects and defects in production, failures and malfunctions at the consumer and developing measures to eliminate their causes. appearance.

Main types technical control are: input control of materials, semi-finished products, purchased components coming from outside; operational control performed during the technological process; control of the technological process for compliance with its established requirements; acceptance control of finished products. In form, all these types of control and measurements can be: active, carried out by technical means, built-in technological equipment; planned, carried out according to the schedule; volatile, organized without predetermined dates; inspections conducted to check the quality of operational or acceptance control.

When choosing technical means of control, non-destructive testing means are preferable. Particularly the answer is wall and expensive parts and Assembly units are covered by complete step-by-step control using unique control and measuring tools, for example, holographic, laser, etc.

Product quality control in associations and enterprises is carried out by technical control departments (QCD). The head of the QCD has the right to stop the acceptance of products, prohibit the use in production of items and means of labor that do not meet the requirements, stop the production of products in units that do not comply with technological discipline; he bears criminal and financial responsibility for the release of low-quality and incomplete products.

Improving product quality control is facilitated by the introduction of self-control of performers, granting them the right to personal branding.

This measure has a great educational effect, promotes the development of a sense of workers' pride, and the strengthening of labor discipline. The effectiveness of technical control increases many times with the introduction of non-departmental control, the system of State acceptance of products.

The introduction of State acceptance at 1,500 enterprises in various industries is a new, fundamentally important step in the cardinal improvement of product quality, an event of great economic and political significance (see also Product Quality Management).

The experience of enterprises that are leaders in the field of quality and the position of an authoritative textbook on management, repeatedly confirmed in practice, show that product quality depends on a number of external and internal factors:

External factors include:

quality requirements (customers, progress, competitors);

suppliers of capital, labor resources, materials, energy, services;

legislation in the field of quality and the work of state bodies.

Internal factors for ensuring product quality are:

modern material base (infrastructure, equipment, materials, finance);

application of advanced technologies;

effective management (rational organization of work and skillful management of the enterprise in general and quality in particular);

qualified personnel interested in a good job.

The dependence of product quality on these factors and their relationship can be represented as a cause-and-effect diagram that clearly shows the principle of quality assurance.

In addition to the above, it can be added that qualified and motivated personnel and a modern material base with advanced technology determine the necessary basis for ensuring product quality - the quality base. Moreover, of all the factors affecting the quality, the key is the human factor, and in it is the interest of employees in good work. This is explained by the obvious consideration that a disinterested worker will not work well even with good equipment, while an interested worker will seek, find and use any opportunities to improve his skills and achieve high quality products.

Effective management with quality management complements the quality base, allows you to realize the opportunities that are created by the material base and the human factor. For it is impossible to produce products, having only equipment, materials and people. We still need to organize the work and establish management.

Thus:

The principle of product quality assurance is to take into account external factors affecting quality (suppliers, quality requirements, laws and government agencies) and create internal factors (material base with advanced technology, effective management with quality management and motivated, qualified personnel). At the same time, priority should be given to staff motivation.

From here it becomes clear how product quality is ensured, and, consequently, what measures are necessary to ensure it.

In addition to the presented flat diagram, the principle of product quality assurance can be shown in the form of a spatial "Quality Model", which shows not only the composition and interrelation of the factors necessary to ensure quality, but also the interaction of these factors and the result of this interaction - improving product quality.

7. At each enterprise, a variety of factors, both internal and external, influence the quality of products. Internal factors include those that are associated with the ability of the enterprise to produce products of adequate quality, i.e. depend on the activity of the enterprise. They are numerous, and it is advisable to classify them into the following groups: technical, organizational, economic, socio-psychological.

Technical factors most significantly affect the quality of products. Therefore, the introduction of new equipment and technology, the use of new materials, higher quality raw materials are the material basis for the production of competitive products.

Organizational factors are associated with improving the organization of production and labor, increasing production discipline and responsibility for product quality, ensuring a culture of production and an appropriate level of personnel qualification, introducing a quality management system and its certification, improving the work of the quality control department and other organizational measures.

Economic factors are determined by the costs of production and sale of products, the cost of providing required level product quality, pricing policy and a system of economic incentives for personnel for the production of high-quality products. Socio-psychological factors largely influence the creation of a healthy socio-psychological climate in the team, normal working conditions, education of personnel in the spirit of devotion and pride in the brand of their enterprise, moral stimulation of employees for a conscientious attitude to work - all these are important components for graduation competitive products.

External factors in the conditions of market relations contribute to the formation of product quality (if the enterprise is not a monopolist). These primarily include: market requirements, i.e. buyers; competition: regulatory documents in the field of product quality; the need to win a worthy place, both in the domestic and foreign markets; ensuring the image of the company among buyers, business people and etc.

Basically, all factors, both internal and external, are closely related, and they all affect the quality of products. It is always necessary to remember that at each stage of development of the enterprise, the degree of influence of these factors is not the same. Therefore, the relevant services of the enterprise should rank them according to the degree of influence and give preference to those that have the greatest impact on product quality. This will allow cost-effective and more efficient management of product quality.

Standardization and certification is the basis for the production of high-quality products in the country.

Standardization throughout the world is a conductor of quality and acceleration of scientific and technical progress, so a lot depends on its condition in the country.

Standard - a normative document on standardization, developed, as a rule, on the basis of consent, characterized by the absence of objections, but significant questions from the majority of interested parties and approved by a recognized body (or representative), in which rules can be established for general and repeated use, general principles, characteristics, requirements and methods relating to certain objects of standardization, and which is aimed at achieving the optimal degree of ordering in a certain area (GOST R 1.0 - 92).

Certification - activities to confirm the conformity of products to established requirements.

Certification system - a set of certification sites that carry out certification according to the rules established in this system. Certificate - a document certifying that the company produces products that meet all the requirements of the standard.

8. Quality audit

Quality Audit is a process of systematic examination of the quality system, carried out by internal or external auditors. It is an important part of the organization of a quality management system and is a key element in the ISO standard ISO 9001. effective evaluation this system, for which the term under consideration serves. According to EN ISO 8402, a quality audit is a systematic and independent study to determine whether the results of activities meet the planned requirements and objectives; whether these requirements are met in practice, and whether they correspond to the goals set. There are the following evaluation methods:

Internal evaluation by the enterprise itself (First Party Audits) is carried out in order to test the system and strengthen its weaknesses.

External evaluation by one of the partners (Second Party Audits). A positive audit by external experts confirms the quality potential of suppliers. According to the previous provisions, the verification was carried out by one of the existing partners. In this case, it often turned out that the same company, being a supplier to many companies, had to carry out numerous, time-consuming and costly inspections every year.

External evaluation by independent experts (Second Party Audits). After the introduction of the international standard, it became possible to carry out audits by independent experts, through the so-called certification bodies. An audit of an enterprise is now carried out by employees of an officially recognized, accredited authority.

Certification / re-audit (Third Party Audits).

EN 45003 defines accreditation as follows: "This is the method by which some significant body formally recognizes that some other body or individual is competent to perform certain tasks." There are many national and international certification bodies. To provide certification services, an organization must comply with the requirements of ISO 17021 “Conformity assessment. Requirements for bodies conducting audit and certification of management systems”, it must be registered in accordance with Russian legislation. When certifying a quality management system, an accredited organization checks the QMS for its compliance with the provisions of the standard and, if there is compliance, issues a certificate. Quality audits require the actual inspection of jobs and the observation of work progress.

Internal and external quality audit

According to EN ISO 10011 there are different kinds quality audit. Internal quality audit and external quality audit can be divided into three types:

Product audit as a control tool at the operational level. The task of a product audit is to assess the conformity of the manufactured product with the established quality requirements. In addition to checking the quality of structural elements, assemblies and final product From the customer's point of view, the following checks are also carried out: manufacturing documentation; production process and machines, as well as controls. This is done using up-to-date quality management documentation, agreements, inspection plans and warranty plans, etc. Purpose: creation of an environment that meets quality, determination of the feasibility of inspections and the potential of inspection bodies, calculation of opportunities for improving the quality of the product, filling in certificates for the product, acquisition of the CE mark.

Process audit as a tool to control the middle level of management. The purpose of a process audit is to verify the manufacturing method and process, such as in special processes. Here it is important to establish the quality potential of the method by defining direct and indirect process parameters, which will allow the process to be managed (guidelines, test instructions, work instructions, test plans, etc.), as well as to test the organizational principles. Thus, quality improvement can be achieved by taking into account two factors: improving the behavior of employees (human factor), increasing the capacity of the method and process (technical factor). Purpose: to ensure the safety of the process and its potential, and to improve the process.

System audit of quality as a tool for control of the highest management level. This type mainly aims at the organization of the enterprise by checking the feasibility, suitability and sufficient effectiveness of all quality control measures, checking the documentation of quality control measures, confirming that the requirements of EN ISO 9001 are met, and identifying organizational weaknesses and deviations from the norm. This allows you to put forward proposals for: carrying out corrective measures related to organization and technology, improving the quality of products and processes.

9. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On certification of products and

services” certification may have a mandatory or voluntary

character.

Mandatory certification - confirmation

authorized product conformity body mandatory requirements established by law.

The most universal, i.e. applicable to most goods and services are the requirements: purpose, safety, environmental friendliness, reliability, ergonomics, resource saving, manufacturability, aesthetics.

Mandatory certification is a form of state control over product safety. Its implementation is associated with certain obligations imposed on enterprises, including those of a material nature. Therefore, it can be carried out only in cases provided for by the legislative acts of the Russian Federation, i.e. laws and regulations of the Government of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Protection of Consumer Rights", the lists of goods (works, services) subject to mandatory certification are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. On the basis of these lists, a resolution of the State Standard of Russia "Nomenclature of products and services (works) in respect of which the legislative acts of the Russian Federation

The Federation provides for their mandatory certification.

With mandatory certification, the validity of the certificate of conformity and the mark of conformity applies to the entire territory of the Russian Federation.

The organization and conduct of work on mandatory certification are entrusted to a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of certification - Gosstandart of Russia, and in cases provided for by legislative acts of the Russian Federation in relation to certain types of products, to other federal executive bodies. In Russia in 1999, there were 16 systems of mandatory certification. The most representative and well-known is the GOST R Compulsory Certification System, formed and entrusted by the State Standard of Russia. Within the framework of this system, there are certification systems for homogeneous products (food products and food raw materials, toys, dishes, light industry goods, etc.) and homogeneous services (catering services, tourism services and hotel services, etc.).

10. In the Russian Federation, a technical regulation is a document (legal act) that establishes mandatory requirements for the application and execution of requirements for objects of technical regulation (products, including buildings, structures and structures, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal).

The concept of technical regulation was introduced by the Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" No. 184-FZ dated December 27, 2002. The law separated the concepts of technical regulation and standard, establishing a voluntary principle for the application of standards. Technical regulations, in contrast to them, are mandatory, but they can establish only the minimum necessary requirements in the field of safety, and they can be adopted only for certain purposes, namely:

protection of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property;

protection of the environment, life or health of animals and plants;

prevention of actions that mislead purchasers.

For the transitional period, until the adoption of the necessary technical regulations, for the indicated purposes, the relevant requirements of the previously adopted GOST (GOST R), sanitary and building codes and rules, as well as other departmental guidance documents (SanPiN, SNiP, RD, etc.).

The law provides for a closed list of exceptions when other mandatory requirements for products can be established (placement of state orders for defense needs, regulation in the field of communication systems, etc.).

11. Article 11. Objectives of standardization

Standardization is carried out in order to:

increasing the level of safety of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environmental safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants and facilitating compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;

increasing the level of safety of facilities, taking into account the risk of natural and man-made emergencies;

ensuring scientific and technological progress;

increasing the competitiveness of products, works, services;

rational use of resources;

technical and information compatibility;

comparability of the results of research (tests) and measurements, technical and economic-statistical data;

product interchangeability.

12. Article 12. Principles of standardization

Standardization is carried out in accordance with the principles:

voluntary application of standards;

maximum consideration in the development of standards of the legitimate interests of interested parties;

application of an international standard as the basis for the development of a national standard, unless such application is recognized as impossible due to inconsistency with the requirements international standards climatic and geographical features of the Russian Federation, technical and (or) technological features or on other grounds, or the Russian Federation, in accordance with established procedures, opposed the adoption of an international standard or a separate provision thereof;

the inadmissibility of creating obstacles to the production and circulation of products, the performance of work and the provision of services to a greater extent than is minimally necessary to achieve the goals specified in Article 11 of this Federal Law;

the inadmissibility of establishing such standards that are contrary to technical regulations;

providing conditions for the uniform application of standards.

13. The entire fund of standards in force on the territory of the Russian Federation includes the following categories:

international (ISO, IEC, ITU) and regional (EU) standards;

interstate standards (GOST);

national standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R);

organization standards (STO)

International Standard: A standard adopted by an international standardization organization and available to a wide range of users.

International standards include ISO standards, IEC standards and ISO/IEC standards, which are joint publications of ISO and IEC. ISO - International Organization for Standardization; IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission; ITU - International Telecommunication Union, EU - European Union.

Interstate Standard (GOST): A regional standard adopted by the Eurasian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification and available to a wide range of users.

The Eurasian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification includes 12 countries former USSR except for the Baltic countries.

National standard (GOST R) - a standard adopted by the national standardization body (Rosstandart) and available to a wide range of consumers

Standards of organizations (STO) - a standard approved and applied by an organization for the purposes of standardization, as well as for improving production and ensuring the quality of products, performing work, providing services, as well as for disseminating and using the results of research (tests), measurements obtained in various fields of knowledge and developments.

14. Type of standard - a characteristic determined by its content, depending on the object of standardization.

Depending on the purpose and content, GOST R 1.0 - 2004 established the following main types of standards:

Standards are fundamental;

Standards for terms and definitions;

Product standards;

Service standards;

Standards for processes (works);

Standards for methods of control.

In accordance with the interstate standard GOST 1.1 - 2002, the following can be additionally developed:

Compatibility standards;

Standards for the nomenclature of indicators.

16. Enterprise Standards (STS) are developed and applied by the enterprise itself. The objects of standardization are usually the components of the organization and management of the enterprise, improvement

which - the main objective standardization at this level.

Standards of public associations (STO) - regulatory documents developed, as a rule, for fundamentally new types of products, processes or services; new test methods, etc. They can then serve as the basis for the development of standards for enterprises, industries,

submission of information on the adopted standards of industries, companies to the State Standard of the Russian Federation, etc. PR and R are developed by organizations and divisions subordinate to Gosstandart or Gosstroy of the Russian Federation.

Specifications (TS) are developed by enterprises in the case when it is not practical to create a standard. The object of technical specifications may be products of a one-time delivery, produced in small batches.

17. International organizations for standardization:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

The international organization ISO began to function on February 23, 1947 as a voluntary, non-governmental organization. It was established on the basis of an agreement reached at a meeting in London in 1946 between representatives of 25 industrialized countries to create an organization with the authority to coordinate the development of various industrial standards at the international level and carry out the procedure for adopting them as international standards.

International Electrotechnical Commission (International Electrotechnical Commission)

The IEC Organization (IEC), formed in 1906, is a voluntary non-governmental organization. Its activities are mainly related to the standardization of the physical characteristics of electrical and electronic equipment. IEC focuses on issues such as, for example, electrical measurements, testing, disposal, safety of electrical and electronic equipment. IEC members are national organizations (committees) for technology standardization in the relevant industries, representing the interests of their countries in international standardization.

The original language of IEC standards is English.

International Telecommunication Union (International Telecommunication Union)

ITU is an international intergovernmental organization in the field of telecommunication standardization. The organization unites more than 500 governmental and non-governmental organizations. It includes telephone, telecommunications and postal ministries, departments and agencies of different countries, as well as organizations supplying equipment for providing telecommunications services. The main task of the ITU is to coordinate the development of internationally harmonized rules and recommendations for the construction and use of global television networks and their services. In 1947, the ITU received the status of a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).

International organizations involved in standardization work

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was founded in 1945 as an intergovernmental specialized organization of the United Nations.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) is an organ of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), established in 1947.

World Health Organization (WHO)

The World Health Organization (WHO) was established in 1948 on the initiative of the UN Economic and Social Council and is a specialized agency of the UN. The goal of the WHO, which is defined by its Charter, is the achievement by all peoples of the highest possible level of health (health is interpreted as a combination of complete physical, mental and social well-being). More than 180 states, including Russia, are members of the WHO. WHO is in consultative status with ISO and participates in more than 40 technical committees.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization established under the auspices of the United Nations to develop cooperation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy. Operates since 1957, headquartered in Vienna; 146 members, including Russia. The official languages ​​of the IAEA are English, Russian, French, Spanish, Chinese; workers - English, Russian, French, Spanish.

World trade Organization(WTO)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 on the basis of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

Consumers International Organization (IOPS)

The International Organization of Consumers Unions (UIC) is doing a lot of work related to ensuring the quality of products and, first of all, consumer goods. Created in 1960 - over 160 consumer associations from different countries are members of the MOPS.

International Organization of Weights and Measures (IOM)

The International Organization of Weights and Measures (IMOW) was founded in 1875 with the aim of unifying the systems of units of measurement used in different countries, establishing the uniformity of standards of length and mass. Currently, MOMV, in addition to units of length and mass, deals with systems of units of time and frequency, as well as electrical, photometric, stabilized laser, gravitational, thermometric and radiometric measurements.

International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML)

The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) is an intergovernmental international organization that aims at international harmonization of the activities of state metrological services or other national institutions aimed at ensuring the comparability, correctness and accuracy of measurement results in OIML member countries. The organization was established in 1955 on the basis of the Convention, ratified by the legislative bodies of the participating countries.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO, is a specialized agency of the United Nations whose mandate is to ensure the safe, efficient and orderly development of international civil aviation. ICAO develops the following types of Standards and other provisions:

Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS);

Additional regional rules (SUPPs);

various kinds of instructional material.

International Advisory Committee for the Standardization of Space Data Systems (CCSDS)

The International Advisory Committee for the Standardization of Space Data Systems was formed in 1982 by the largest space agencies in the world and serves as a forum for discussing common problems in the development and operation of space information systems. It currently consists of 11 agency members, 28 observer agencies, and over 140 industry partners.

Standardized objects:

radio frequency bands, functions and structures of the ground-to-air link;

parameters of receiving and transmitting devices;

formatted data building blocks;

command radio link procedures;

data processing and compression;

interfaces and protocols for data exchange at various levels;

decision logic, etc.

Regional organizations

Interstate Council of the CIS (IGU / EASC)

Full name - Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (IGU) of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (EuroAsian Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification)

The IGU is an intergovernmental body of the CIS for the formation and implementation of an agreed policy on standardization, metrology and certification. The working body of the IGU is the Standards Bureau, which consists of a group of experts and a regional information center. Under the Council, 270 interstate technical committees for standardization have been created. IGU is recognized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - Regional Organization for Standardization as the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC) (Council Resolution ISO 26/1996).

European Standards Organizations

CEN (the European Committee for Standardization) is a European committee for the standardization of a wide range of goods, services and technologies.

CENELEC (the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) is the European committee for the standardization of solutions in electrical engineering.

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) is the European Telecommunications Standards Institute.

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NATO standardization bodies

NATO Committee Standardization (NCS - NATO Committee Standardization)

NATO Standardization Staff Group (NSSG)

NATO Standardization Bureau (ONS - Office for NATO Standardization)

NATO Standardization Liaison Board (NSLB)

NATO Standardization Organization (NSO) to monitor, implement and improve the NATO Standardization Program

Types of standards

Publications AACP - AAP - AASTP - AECTP - AEDP - AEP - AJP - AOP - AQAP - ARMP - ATP - ADatP

Standardization agreements (STANAG - Standardization Argeement)

Other regional organizations

COPANT (Pan American Standards Commission) - Pan American Standards Committee

Advisory Committee on Standardization and Quality of ASEAN Member Countries

Pacific Rim Standards Congress (PASC)

Arab Organization for Industrial Development and Mining

African Regional Organization for Standardization

18. Rules of application. GSS of Russia allows the following options rules for the application of international and regional standards:

Acceptance of the authentic text of the international (regional) standard as a state Russian regulatory document (GOST R) without any additions and changes ("cover method"). Such a standard is designated as it is customary for the domestic standard;

Adoption of the authentic text of the international (regional) standard, but with additions that reflect the features Russian requirements to the object of standardization. When designating such a regulatory document, the number of the corresponding international (regional) is added to the code of the domestic standard.

Other options are also possible: the use (borrowing) of certain provisions (norms) of the international standard and their introduction into the Russian regulatory document. This is quite acceptable by the rules of the GSS RF, but in similar cases the international (regional) standard is considered only as a source of information taken into account when creating a domestic standard. The latter is not considered a form of adoption of the international (regional) standard. A similar interpretation is applicable to GOST R, which contains a reference to the international (regional) standard.

ISO/IEC Guide 2 also deals with the direct and indirect application of an International Standard.

Direct application is the application of an international standard, regardless of its adoption in any other normative document.

Indirect application is the application of an international standard through another normative document in which this standard was adopted.

Thus, according to the terminology, the above two options are the indirect application of the international standard in the national standardization system of the Russian Federation.

Application of international standards in mechanical engineering. The most relevant area for the use of international standards in the Russian Federation is mechanical engineering, where out of 4988 existing standards more than 2000 - international. Data for various engineering industries are given in Table. 13.1.

19.3.1 Structural elements of the standard

3.1.1 The standard contains the following structural elements:

Title page;

Preface;

Introduction;

Name;

Application area;

Definitions;

Designations and abbreviations;

Requirements;

Applications;

bibliographic data.

3.1.2 Structural elements, with the exception of the elements "Title Page", "Foreword", "Name", "Requirements", are given, if necessary, depending on the features of the standardized object.

3.2 Title page

3.2.1 The first page of the title pages of state standards of the Russian Federation, industry standards, enterprise standards, standards of scientific and technical, engineering societies and other public associations is drawn up in accordance with Annexes A, B, C, D.

3.2.2 On the second page title page put a preface. After the preface, at the bottom of the sheet of the state standard of the Russian Federation, they indicate: “This standard cannot be fully or partially reproduced, replicated and distributed as an official publication without the permission of ___________________________________

name of the body that adopted the standard

3.2.3 Standards, if necessary, may be brochured in a thematic collection. At the same time, a common first page of the title page for the collection is additionally drawn up, on which the designations of all the standards included in the collection are placed. If the designations of the standards included in the collection have a continuous sequence of numbers, it is allowed to indicate the designations of the first and last (in ascending order of numbers) standards, separating them with a punctuation mark - “dash”.

3.3 Preface

3.3.1 The preface is placed on the second page of the title page. The word "Foreword" is written in capital letters in the middle of the page.

3.3.2 The information given in the preface is numbered in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) and arranged in the following sequence:

1) information about the technical committee for standardization or the enterprise-developer, the adoption of state standards of the Russian Federation

"DEVELOPED AND INTRODUCED _____________________________________________

number and name of the technical committee for standardization or the enterprise that developed and submitted the draft standard for adoption

ADOPTED AND INTRODUCED BY Resolution _____________________

body name

__________________________________________________________________ »;

government controlled Russian Federation, date of adoption and number of the resolution

2) information about the developer and adoption of the industry standard:

“DESIGNED ___________

name of the TC or the enterprise that developed and submitted the draft standard for adoption

ADOPTED AND INTRODUCED ____________________________________

Name

organization that adopted the standard, date and number of the policy document

3) information on the application of the international, regional or national standard of another country as the state standard of the Russian Federation is drawn up in accordance with Appendix B1;

4) if the standard implements the legislative norms of the law (s) of the Russian Federation, the preface should indicate:

“This standard implements the norms of ____________________

name of the law (s) of the Russian Federation

5) information about the standard developed for products, the production of which is carried out under a license:

"The requirements of the standard comply with the requirements established in the technical and regulatory documents of the licensor";

6) information about the inventions used in the development of the standard. Give the numbers and dates of patents, applications for inventions and copyright certificates;

7) information about the regulatory documents, in exchange for which the standard was developed: "INSTITUTION __________________________________" or

“INSTEAD OF ________________________________ in part

designation of a normative document

If the standard is introduced for the first time, they write "INTRODUCED FOR THE FIRST TIME";

8) information about the reissue of the standard:

"RE-ISSUED ____________________"

month year

“REPUBLICATION ___________________ WITH CHANGES No. ____________

month, year number

_________________________________________

changes, information document number

3.3.3 If necessary, additional information may be included in the preface.

3.5 Introduction

The introduction is given if necessary to justify the reasons for the development of the standard. The introduction should not contain requirements.

The introduction is not numbered and placed on a separate sheet.

3.6 Name

3.6.1 The name of the standard should be concise, accurately characterize the object of standardization and ensure the correct classification of the standard for inclusion in the information indexes of standards.

3.6.2 In the name of the standard, as a rule, abbreviations are not allowed (except symbols products), Roman numerals, mathematical signs, Greek letters.

3.6.3 In the name of the standards, if they are included in a set of standards united by a common purpose, a group heading is given before the heading.

The group heading in the name of the product standard, as a rule, is not included.

The name of the standard, depending on its content, has the following structure:

Title and subtitle.

1 INSTRUMENT MICROSCOPES

General technical requirements

2 SNOW LOADERS

Control methods

group heading, heading" subheading

Example - one system design documentation

ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM

Terms and Definitions

Group title and subtitle

Example - State Standardization System

Russian Federation

Key points

3.6.4 The title of the standard should be printed in capital letters. The group heading and subheading of the standard should be printed in lowercase letters with the first capital.

3.6.5 The heading of the standard defines the object of the standardization. The heading should contain the necessary and sufficient features that distinguish given object from other objects of standardization.

3.6.6 The heading of the standard for a group of homogeneous products is formed taking into account the name of the classification groups of the All-Russian classifier products (OKP).

3.6.7 For a more complete description of the object of standardization, additional definitions should be introduced into the heading of the standard, indicating the characteristic features:

Belonging of the object to a certain group of products.

Example - UNIVERSAL LOADERS

Manufacture of this product in only one specific way.

Example - HOT ROLLED BANDS

Manufacture of products from a specific material.

Example - PIPES FROM ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS WELDED

Production of products of certain sizes, shapes, etc.

Example - SHAFTS ENDS TAPERED 1:10

In the heading of the standard, before the designation of the type, brand, product model, the words “brand”, “type”, “model” should be written, and then their designation should be indicated.

Example - ROPE DOUBLE LAY TYPE TLC-O

3.6.8 If the object of standardization is a part of a whole, then the part is indicated at the beginning of the heading, and the whole is given as a sign.

Example - PANEL METER HOUSINGS

3.6.9 In the title of the standard, the first word should be a noun (the name of the object of standardization), and the following words should be definitions (adjectives) in order of their significance (hierarchical generic subordination based on the principle from general to particular), i.e. the title of the standard should be written in reverse word order.

Example - CRANES BRIDGE ELECTRIC FOUNDRY

3.6.10 Direct word order in the heading of a standard should be retained in the following cases:

In the name of the object of standardization, a noun without an adjective in this meaning is not used.

Example - HEADWEAR

The sign of the object of standardization is expressed by a combination of a noun in the indirect case with an adjective.

Example - HYDRAULIC TANKS

The standard for terms, definitions and letter designations of quantities indicates the field of knowledge, science, branch of technology or production to which they belong

1 VACUUM TECHNOLOGY

Terms and Definitions

2 PHYSICAL OPTICS

Designations of major greatness

3.6.11 The name of the object of standardization in the heading of the standard must be written in the singular. If the standard applies to several standardization objects of the same name, the name of the standardization object in the heading of the standard should be written in the plural.

3.6.12 When extending the standard to two or more objects of standardization, the heading must be written in the following order:

If the objects of standardization are characterized by the same features, then first you should write nouns connected by the union “and”, (a comma and the union “and”, if more than two nouns), and then the signs in order of their significance from general to particular.

1 DIGITAL ELECTRIC METERING INSTRUMENTS AND CONVERTERS

2 SHIP MACHINES, MECHANISMS, APPARATUS, DEVICES AND FOUNDATIONS

If the signs refer to one of the listed objects of standardization, then this object should be written last, keeping the direct word order.

1 MICROPHONES AND MICROPHONE CONNECTORS

2 CABLES, WIRES, CORDS AND CABLE ACCESSORIES

If each standardization object has its own characteristics, then only the phrase denoting the first standardization object is given with the reverse word order.

Example - PORCELAIN AND HIGH VOLTAGE INSULATORS

3.6.13 If the standard applies to products different types belonging to the same classification grouping of products, then the signs should be written separated by a comma and the union “and” before the last sign of the product.

Example - FLAT PALLETS, BOX AND RACK PALLETS

3.6.14 In the subheading of the standard indicate the name of the content established by the standard.

1 METAL BODIES

Test Methods

2 POLYMERS

Metopes for determining viscosity

3.6.15 When publishing a standard using typesetting printing forms, the name of the standard should be in bold.

3.7 Scope

3.7.1 The structural element "Scope" is given to determine the scope of its purpose (distribution) and, if necessary, to clarify the object of standardization, it is placed on the first page of the standard and numbered with a unit (1).

3.7.2 When clarifying the object of standardization, the following wording is used:

"Does this standard apply to?".

EXAMPLE This International Standard is applicable to center lathes with an end device.

3.7.3 When clarifying the content of the standard, the following wording is used:

"Does this standard set?".

EXAMPLE This International Standard specifies the dimensions of the radial and axial clearance of bearings.

3.7.4 When clarifying the scope, the following wording is used:

"Does this standard apply?".

EXAMPLE This standard applies to all textile products supplied to the consumer.

3.7.5 For products supplied only to nuclear power plants, the following wording is used:

"This standard applies to ?, supplied only to nuclear power plants."

3.7.6 In the standard containing the requirements for safety for the life and health of the population, the environment, if these requirements are not separated into independent sections, the following should be indicated:

"Safety requirements are set out in ____________________________".

subsection designation

3.8.2 The list of referenced standards begins with the words:

3.8.3 The list includes the designation of standards and their names in ascending order of registration numbers of designations in the kissing sequence:

State standards Russian Federation;

Industry standards.

3.9 Definitions

3.9.1 The "Definitions" structural element contains the definitions necessary to clarify or establish the terms used in the standard.

3.9.2 The list of definitions begins with the words:

“The following terms apply with their respective definitions in this standard.”

3.10 Symbols and abbreviations

3.10.1 Structural element "Designations and abbreviations" contains a list of designations and abbreviations used in this standard.

3.10.2 Recording of designations and abbreviations is carried out in the order they are given in the text of the standard with the necessary interpretation and explanations.

An important role in quality management belongs to technical conditions (TS).

Specifications is a normative and technical document that establishes additional to state standards, and in their absence, independent requirements for product quality indicators, as well as a technical description, recipe, standard sample equated to this document. The requirements provided for in the technical specifications cannot be lower than those in state standards.

The product quality management system is based on comprehensive standardization.

The standards determine the procedure and methods for planning the improvement of product quality at all stages of the life cycle, establish requirements for the means and methods for monitoring and evaluating product quality. Product quality management is carried out on the basis of: state, international, industry standards and enterprise standards.

State standardization acts as a means of protecting the interests of society and specific consumers and applies to all levels of government.

ISO 9000 series guarantee the consumer the right to more actively influence the quality of products; provide legislative framework which provides for the active role of the consumer in the process of manufacturing quality products.

ISO 9000 is used to define the differences and relationships between key concepts in the field of quality and as a guideline for the selection and application of ISO standards for quality systems, which are used internally by the company in solving quality management tasks (ISO 9004).

In our country, the State Standardization System of the Russian Federation (SSS) has been formed, which includes five main standards?

1. GOST R 1.0-92 State standardization system of the Russian Federation. Basic provisions.

2. GOST R 1.2-92 State standardization system of the Russian Federation. The procedure for the development of state standards.

3. GOST R 1.3-92 State system of the Russian Federation. The order of coordination, approval and registration of technical conditions.

4. GOST R 1.4-92 State system of the Russian Federation. Enterprise standards. General provisions.

5. GOST R 1.5-92 State system of the Russian Federation. General requirement for the construction, presentation, design and content of standards.

There are three state standards in Russia:

1. GOST 40.9001-88 “Quality system. A model for quality assurance in design and/or development, production, installation and maintenance.”

2. GOST 40.9002.-88 “Quality system. A model for quality assurance in production and installation”.

3. GOST 40.9003-88 “Quality system. Model for Quality Assurance in Final Inspection and Testing”.

The State Standards of the Russian Federation include the following provisions:

• requirements for the quality of products, works, services that ensure safety for life, health and property, environmental protection, mandatory requirements for safety and industrial sanitation;
• requirements for compatibility and interchangeability of products;
• methods for controlling the requirements for the quality of products, works and services that ensure their safety for life, health of people and property, environmental protection, compatibility and interchangeability of products;
• basic consumer and operational properties of products, requirements for packaging, labeling, transportation and storage, disposal;
• provisions ensuring technical unity in the development, production, operation of products and the provision of services, rules for ensuring product quality, safety and rational use all types of resources, terms, definitions and designations and other general technical rules and regulations.

It is important for any company to comply with established standards and maintain a quality system at an appropriate level.

findings

Quality management requires a systematic approach.

The quality management system is a set of management bodies and management objects, activities, methods and means aimed at establishing, ensuring and maintaining a high level of product quality.

The quality management system must comply with ISO 9000 standards.

Quality control involves the identification of defective products.

An important role in quality control is played by statistical methods, the use of which is required in ISO 9000 standards when evaluating quality management systems.

In quality control, control charts are successfully used. A control chart consists of a center line, two control limits (above and below the center line), and characteristic (quality score) values ​​plotted on the map to represent the state of the process. Control charts serve to identify a specific cause (not random).

The Ishikawa scheme (diagram of causes and results) consists of a quality indicator characterizing the result and factorial indicators.

Pareto charts are used to identify a few, essential defects and their causes.

Review questions

1. List the main statistical quality control methods.
2. What is the purpose of Shewhart control charts?
3. What is the purpose of cause and effect diagrams (Ishikawa diagrams)?
4. What are the steps involved in building pareto charts?
5. How to link consumer and production quality?
6. List the five main stages of quality management.
7. What are the functions of a quality management system?
8. What requirements should a quality management system meet?
9. What are the objectives of the quality policy.
10. What are the stages of the product life cycle?
11. What is the purpose statistical methods control?
12. Name the characteristics of a batch of products in the control by an alternative sign.
13. What tasks does statistical acceptance control on an alternative attribute solve?
14. Tell us about the standards of statistical acceptance control.
15. What is meant by the system of economic plans and what is their significance?
16. What are continuous sampling plans used for?
17. What role do control charts play in the system of quality management methods?
18. For what purposes are the control cards of U.A. Shewhart?
19. What is the purpose of cause and effect diagrams of the Ishikawa scheme)?
20. What are the steps involved in building Pareto charts?
21. What is the role of standardization in quality management?
22. What standards are included in the State Standardization System of the Russian Federation?

CHAPTER 4

Basic concepts in the field of technical support of reliability

Reliability is a concept associated primarily with technology. It can be interpreted as “reliability”, “ability to perform a specific task” or as "the probability of performing a certain function or functions during a certain time and under certain conditions".

As a technical concept, “reliability” is the probability (in the mathematical sense) of satisfactorily performing a certain function. Since reliability is a probability, statistical characteristics are used to evaluate it.

The reliability measurement results are reported to include data on sample size, confidence limits, sampling procedures, etc.

In technology, the concept of “satisfactory performance” is also used. The exact definition of this concept is connected with the definition of its opposite - "unsatisfactory performance" or "refusal".

System failures can be due to the design of parts, their manufacture or operation.

AT modern conditions great attention is paid to the reliability of electronic equipment.

The general concept of “reliability” is opposed by the concept of “intrinsic reliability” of a piece of equipment, which is the probability of failure-free operation in accordance with specified specifications under specified verification tests for a required period of time. Reliability testing measures “intrinsic reliability”. It represents essentially the “operational reliability” of the equipment and is a consequence of two factors: “intrinsic reliability” and “operational reliability”. Operational reliability, in turn, is determined by the conformity of the equipment to its use, the procedure and method of operational use and maintenance, the qualifications of personnel, the possibility of repairing various parts, environmental factors, etc.

For each characteristic to be measured, a tolerance is specified in the technical specifications, the violation of which is considered as a “failure”. The tolerance that determines the failure must be optimal with the necessary allowance for wear of parts, i.e. it must be wider than the normal factory tolerance. Therefore, factory tolerances are set taking into account the fact that parts wear out over time.

The main concepts related to reliability are:

1. serviceability- the state of the product, in which it at a given moment of time meets all the requirements established both in relation to the main parameters characterizing the normal performance of the specified functions, and in relation to secondary parameters characterizing ease of use, appearance, etc.

2. Malfunction- the state of the product, in which it at a given time does not meet at least one of the requirements that characterize the normal performance of the specified functions.

3. performance- the state of the product, in which, at a given time, it meets all the requirements established in relation to the main parameters characterizing the normal performance of the specified functions.

4. Refusal- an event consisting in the complete or partial loss of the product of its performance.

5. Complete failure- a failure, until the elimination of which the use of the product for its intended purpose becomes impossible.

6. Partial failure- a failure until the elimination of which it remains possible to partially use the product.

7. Reliability- the property of the product to continuously maintain operability for a certain period of time.

8. Durability- the property of the product to remain operational (with possible interruptions for maintenance and repair) until destruction or other limiting state. The limit state can be set according to parameter changes, according to safety conditions, etc.

9. maintainability- a property of the product, expressed in its suitability for maintenance and repair operations, i.e., for the prevention, detection and elimination of malfunctions and failures.

10. Reliability (in broad sense) - property of the product, due to the reliability, durability and maintainability of the product itself and its parts and ensuring the preservation of the performance of the product under specified conditions.

11. Recoverability- the property of the product to restore the initial values ​​of the parameters as a result of eliminating failures and malfunctions, as well as to restore the technical resource as a result of repairs.

12. Persistence- the property of the product to maintain serviceability and reliability under certain conditions and transportation.

In order to predict future failures, actual data on the frequency of failures over the time the equipment is used for its intended purpose is needed.

When processing information, the reciprocal of the failure rate is used “mean time between failures”.

Quite complex analytical techniques are used to study reliability. For example, when researching electronic systems the engineer selects a set of key characteristics, selects the most important of them, selects options for action and one of these options, studies the working conditions and evaluates them.

Due to the high pace of modern scientific and technological progress, it is important to choose the optimal moment for the transition from scientific research and preparatory work to production. In a competitive environment, a well-chosen launch time is an important factor that works in two directions: “too early” launch can lead to the same negative consequences, as well as "too late".

The reasons for the manufacture of unreliable products can be:

• lack of regular verification of compliance with standards;
• errors in the use of materials and improper control of materials during production;
• incorrect accounting and reporting on control, including information on technology improvement;
• substandard sampling schemes;
• lack of testing of materials for their compliance;
• failure to meet acceptance test standards;
• lack of instructional materials and instructions for the control;
• occasional use of control reports for process improvement.

Mathematical models used for quantitative assessments of reliability depend on the “type” of reliability. Modern theory distinguishes three types of reliability:

1. “Instantaneous reliability”, for example, fuses.

2. Reliability with normal service life. For example, computing. Normal service reliability studies use “mean time between failures” as the unit of measure. The range recommended in practice is from 100 to 2000 hours.

3. Extremely long service life. For example, spaceships. If the service life requirements are more than 10 years, they are classified as extremely long service life.

Under normal operational reliability, the technical reliability prediction can be theoretical, experimental and empirical. With theoretical testing tools, I develop a scheme for this operation and check the compliance of the scheme using a mathematical model. If the schema does not match the operation, refinements are made until a match is achieved. This is the so-called scientific research.

The empirical approach is to perform the necessary measurements on the actual products produced and to draw conclusions about the reliability.

The experimental approach occupies an intermediate position between the theoretical and empirical. The experimental approach uses both theory and measurements. At the same time, methods of mathematical modeling of processes are widely used, creating experimental data on this basis. After that, the information is subjected to statistical analysis using modern computer technology, which ensures the reliability and reliability of the conclusions.

Any type of test is preceded by an experimental plan.

Since reliability is a probabilistic characteristic, quantitative estimates are used to estimate the “average reliability” calculated on the basis of samples from the entire population, as well as to predict future reliability. Reliability is studied using statistical methods and can be refined with their help.

It should be noted that the service life is not the only indicator of operational properties.

In some cases, reliability can be characterized by other indicators (mileage, duration of active use, etc.). The service life of products depends on both manufacturing conditions and operating conditions.

The reliability of many products can be revealed in the conditions of their consumption. A scientifically based system for monitoring the operation of products makes it possible to identify defects caused by violations of the manufacturing process at the manufacturer.

The manufacturer must:

• apply statistical quality control;
• check at regular intervals the state of process controllability;
• strive to improve the quality and reliability of manufactured equipment;
• ensure that customer requirements are properly understood and met.

An analysis of various definitions of reliability available in the literature leads to a generalized conclusion that reliability is understood as the failure-free operation of products under regulated operating conditions for a certain period of time.

Reliability indicators

The most widely used indicator in reliability studies is - failure rate. It is denoted by (lambda):

n is the number of out-of-service products;

N is the total number of products;

is the average test time.

The average test time is determined by the formula:

n i is the number of products in the test group;

t i is the duration of the tests of this group.

If the number of products out of order exceeds 5-10%, then an adjustment is introduced into the calculation:

,

- the number of failed products in this group;

- the number of failures for the same test time;

- the duration of tests to disable the product.

To calculate the average failure rate, it is important to choose the correct time interval, since usually the density of failures varies with time.

Example. When testing some piece of electronic equipment, it can be determined after 1000-2000 hours. 4 groups of 250 products are tested for 2000 hours.

The test results are as follows:

Let's calculate:

hours.

In total, 20 products failed during the tests (7 + 5 + 4 + 4)

Then for 1000 hours.

Parts and assemblies may fail due to manufacturing defects and other reasons.

At a constant level of failure rate per unit of time, the distribution of probabilities of failure-free operation intervals is expressed by an exponential law of distribution of operational durability.

Selective control

A characteristic feature of control in the study of reliability is that the possibilities of drawing up samples are limited by the small number of pieces of equipment in the early stages of its development. As a rule, the customer chooses the number of units to be tested. However, the level of confidence in the test results varies depending on the number of units tested. The duration of the expected operational time and the degree of wear of the samples during testing have the same effect.

In practice, sampling for reliability testing is carried out according to a plan that initially (and then every time the sampled product has a reduced mean time between failures) assumes a 10% consumer risk at an acceptable quality level corresponding to 10% units, with below-standard reliability. Let us note some difference between statistical quality control and spot checks in connection with the technical support of reliability. In the latter case, in addition to questions of the representativeness of the sample, the question of the required test time arises.

Naturally, one hundred percent testing of batches until the samples are completely worn out is impossible. Therefore, the sampling schemes used in the study of reliability provide for the current random inspection of manufactured products. relaxed mode control until a substandard product is found. In other words, the weakened control procedure continues until a defective specimen appears in the sample. When a unit of output with a characteristic reduced against the norm is detected, the normal control mode is restored, which can switch to the mode enhanced control depending on the number of marriages identified in the sample. As a rule, such sampling plans are developed taking into account the given average time between failures and monthly production sizes.

In the study of reliability, the method of sequential analysis is often used to decide whether to accept or reject a lot. First of all, it is revealed that the mean time of failure-free operation under given conditions is at the level of the established minimum or exceeds it. Such tests are planned after the specimens and test equipment to be tested have been properly inspected. Testing is terminated as soon as an acceptance decision is made. But they do not stop if a decision is made to reject the batch. In the latter case, they continue according to a well-defined plan of statistical control.

Failure is understood as the appearance of the first signs of malfunction or malfunction of the equipment. Each failure is characterized by a certain time of its occurrence.

The results of the reliability study are important in the certification of products and quality systems.

findings

Reliability is a concept related to technology. As a technical concept, reliability is the probability of satisfactorily performing a certain function. Reliability measurement reports should include data on sample size, confidence intervals, and sampling procedures. When processing actual data on the frequency of failures during the operation of the equipment, an indicator is used that is the inverse of the failure rate “ mean time between failures”. The study of reliability is the object of statistical methods, allows their application and can be refined with their help. When carrying out selective control of reliability, along with the question of sample representation, the question of the required test time is decided.

Review questions

1. Define reliability.

2. Why is the concept of reliability associated with technology?

3. What metric is used to process bounce data?

4. Name the types of reliability and describe them.

5. What is the feature of selective control in the study of reliability?

CHAPTER 5. CERTIFICATION OF PRODUCTS AND QUALITY SYSTEMS

Requirements for a product can be current and prospective, general and specific.
Current requirements are developed and presented to mass-produced goods that are on sale. They are established taking into account the technical and economic possibilities of production and the level of our knowledge about the product at a certain stage of development. These requirements, as a rule, are regulated by state, republican and industry standards and specifications. Prospective requirements combine a wider range of product quality indicators. They are developed on the basis of current requirements for the quality of goods. At the same time, the purpose, operating conditions of the goods, the most complete satisfaction of the needs of the population, the improvement of production processes, the emergence of new types of raw materials, equipment and technology are taken into account. The development of promising requirements for the quality of goods encourages workers in science, industry and trade to constantly Scientific research aimed at improving the quality of finished products and expanding their range.
Promising requirements, as technical progress develops, move into the current group and are regulated by GOSTs and technical specifications.
The development of promising and revision of current requirements for the quality of goods are the most important tasks of commodity science.
General requirements are equally imposed either on one or on the vast majority of goods. These include: the most complete compliance of the goods with the purpose and the degree of fulfillment of the main function, ease of use, harmlessness to humans and ensuring the normal functioning of the body, strength and reliability in operation within the specified period, the possibility and ease of repair. Specific requirements apply to a narrower group of products or to a specific product. They are more diverse and depend on the purpose and operating conditions of the goods. So, in one case, higher requirements are placed on the strength of goods, in the other, on external design. The most important requirement for musical instruments is sound quality. For products for artistic and decorative purposes, the main requirements are thematic content, ideological orientation, color design, accuracy of execution, and the requirements for strength are less important. Both current and prospective, both general and specific requirements, depending on which side of the consumption of the goods they characterize, are divided into requirements: social purpose, functional, reliability in consumption, ergonomic, aesthetic, consumption safety requirements, environmental. Industrial products are also subject to technological, standardization and unification requirements, economic, etc.

Quality control

Quality control occupies a special place in product quality management. It is control, as one of the effective means of achieving the intended goals and the most important function of management, that contributes to the correct use of the objectively existing, as well as the prerequisites and conditions created by man for the production of high-quality products. The efficiency of production as a whole largely depends on the degree of perfection of quality control, its technical equipment and organization. It is in the process of control that the actually achieved results of the system functioning are compared with the planned ones. Modern methods quality control of products, allowing at minimal cost to achieve high stability of quality indicators, are becoming increasingly important.

Quality is one of the fundamental characteristics of a product, which has a decisive influence on the creation of consumer preferences and the formation of competitiveness.

Quality- a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

In order to protect the interests of consumers and the state on the quality of products and services, ensuring their safety for human life and health, and the preservation of the environment, standards are being developed.

The following types operate in the Russian Federation normative documentation: interstate standards (GOST), state standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R), industry standards (OST), enterprise standards (STP), technical specifications.

State standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R) are a new type of national standard, approved by the State Standard of Russia and valid throughout the Russian Federation.

Interstate standards (GOST) are the standards adopted by the states that have signed the Agreement on the implementation of a coordinated policy in the field of standardization, metrology and certification.

GOSTs and GOST R include: product quality requirements that ensure its safety for human life and health and for the environment; basic consumer properties of products, requirements for labeling, packaging, storage, transportation; mandatory methods of product quality control; safety and industrial hygiene requirements, as well as other requirements, norms and rules.

According to Russian legislation, the conformity of goods to a certain level of quality is confirmed by a certificate of conformity.

The object of certification is products intended for sale on the commodity market of the Russian Federation, as well as imported products. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of Consumer Rights", the list of products subject to mandatory certification and the list of quality indicators that ensure the functional use of these products, as well as indicators that ensure their safety, are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

Property- an objective feature of a product (or product), which manifests itself during its creation, evaluation, storage), consumption (operation). Product properties can be simple or complex. Water permeability is a simple property of a shoe, but the durability of a TV is a complex property.

Level of quality- quantitative and qualitative expression of the properties of products (goods).

Quality indicators:

. unit— designed to express the simple properties of the product;

. complex- designed to express the complex properties of goods. So, the wear resistance of shoes is a complex indicator, characterized through a number of single ones: the strength of the attachment of the top with the sole, shoe deformation, flexibility, etc .;

. basic- indicators taken as a basis;

. defining- indicators that are crucial in assessing the quality of the goods.

If the product does not pose a health hazard, the most important requirement for its quality is reliable information about the properties. The consumer, using such information, makes an informed choice based on their preferences and dietary needs. Thus, in this chapter, first of all, we will focus on labeling.

We will also look at some standards for meat and vegetables that will help to understand the essence. technical requirements to products such as calibration, quality classes, defect tolerances, packaging, etc.

From the previous chapters, we already know about a wide variety of documents that define the requirements for microbiological, toxicological, and radiation safety of products. Having become acquainted with two EU Directives, we learn that some countries impose mandatory requirements for other quality characteristics food products- place of origin, technical parameters.

And if there are some mandatory requirements, there must be procedures for confirming compliance with these requirements - official inspections, inspections, expert reports.

Definition of quality

Quality is one of the most difficult subjects in international trade negotiations.

Quality is a complex term and different people mean different things when they talk about it. It will be useful to give some definition.

A consumer may define food quality as a combination of those characteristics that distinguish an individual product and determine it to be acceptable. In a broad sense, quality refers to the technological, physical, chemical, microbiological, nutritional and sensory parameters that make foods healthy. These factors depend on certain features: organoleptic properties based on aroma, color, taste, structure; quantitative properties - the content of sugar, protein, fiber; hidden signs - the content of peroxides, free fatty acids, enzymes, etc. Qualitative signs also include the expiration date and are focused on the type of consumer.

There are two main concepts of quality:

The first refers to the characteristics that make an item fit for its intended use. This concept was broadly defined in the ISO 9000:2000 standard: “... the whole set of features and characteristics of a product, process or service, which is based on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs”;

The second concept is related to "superiority" - this is something that distinguishes an object from similar objects, justifying the demand for it.

In both cases, there is no indication of who should determine the content of the concept of quality in the relationship between the supplier and the consumer. There is no indication of how quality characteristics are formulated or defined. Is it possible to rely on market mechanisms, direct contacts of interested participants, or should these be state institutions that make it possible to measure the needs that must be satisfied?

An essential characteristic of the quality of foodstuffs intended for human consumption is safety. Everyone has the right to ensure that the risks associated with microorganisms, toxins, hazardous chemical residues, etc. are minimal. Thus, quality and safety are inseparable, and we will mention this again here, but a more detailed discussion of this essential quality characteristic was made in previous chapters.

Thus, there can be no quality without safety, but quality is more than safety. There is an aspect of nutritional value, the notion of "healthy" food, and product characteristics such as taste, integrity, and even authenticity.

The concept of quality may include ethical factors, when customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction is not related to the characteristics of the product, but to the way in which it was produced. For example, if the production process harms the environment, uses child labor, or violates basic rules for keeping animals, some consumers may perceive it as “low quality” because it offends their personal values.

This broad concept of quality also includes individual attitude to specific technologies such as biotechnology or irradiation and procedures (kosher or halal products) for cultural and religious reasons.

Does high quality food in its most essential terms correspond to high quality dietary nutrition? Of course not. Even the safest and best foods can backfire if consumed in too high amounts or combined with other foods inappropriately. Creating a healthy diet from healthy foods is a matter of consumer education.

Various gradations of food quality can be defined at two levels:

Generic quality level: Free from defects, fraud and adulteration and the presence of the expected properties.

The absence of defects, fraud and falsification is a historical understanding of quality and is probably the area that is best covered by public and private standards and regulations (in terms of both quality and safety). Thanks to regional and international organizations, a high level of harmonization and consensus has been formed in this area.

The presence of expected properties refers to organoleptic (eg taste) and nutritional characteristics or benefits associated with them. It is assumed that operators will take into account the legitimate interests of consumers, and their actions will be adequate. This area in recent years has been the area of ​​increased interest of the public sector that protects the interests of citizens.

Specific quality level: Presence of desirable characteristics.

Obviously, these characteristics justify the added value. Examples are the form of production (organic farming), respect for the environment, animal welfare, areas of production (indication of the area of ​​origin, mountainous area) and traditions associated with this. This area is of interest due to the fact that many operators seek to distinguish their product from similar products, attracting the attention of consumers and winning their preferences.

Quality- one of the fundamental characteristics of the product, which has a decisive influence on consumer demand and its competitiveness.

Quality is a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

The main properties of food products that are able to satisfy a person's nutritional needs, are safe for his health, and are reliable during storage are: nutritional value, physical and taste properties, and shelf life.

Nutritional value is a complex property that consists of energy, biological, physiological value, good quality and digestibility of food products.

Energy value is characterized by the energy that the body receives in the process of metabolism. To build tissues and metabolic processes, all the constituent parts of the products are necessary, and the need for energy is satisfied mainly by proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

The energy value of foods is expressed in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (kcal) per 100 g.

Studies have established that during oxidation in the human body, 1 g of protein releases 4.1 kcal (16.7 kJ); 1 g of fat - 2.3 kcal (37.7 kJ); carbohydrates - 3.75 kcal (15.7 kJ).

The human body receives the greatest amount of energy from the oxidation of alcohol and organic acids.

The energy value can be calculated by knowing the chemical composition of the products.

The data on the calorie content of the product put down in the labeling of the product are designed to help the buyer make calculations for a balanced diet.

Biological value is characterized by protein composition and content of vitamins and minerals. Energy costs modern man are small and amount to approximately 2500 kcal, so the biological value of food is of particular importance.

Physiological value is the ability of products to have an active effect on the digestive, nervous and cardiovascular systems of a person, on the body's resistance to infectious diseases. So, for example, lactic acid and antibiotics secreted by the microflora of lactic acid products prevent the development of putrefactive bacteria that contribute to the aging of the body. Fiber and pectin are regulators of intestinal motility.

Organoleptic value is characterized by such quality indicators as appearance, taste, smell, consistency. In fresh, little stored products, there are more biologically active substances. Products that have an irregular shape, dull color, rough or overly soft texture are less digestible and may even contain substances that are harmful to the human body.

Digestibility is one of the important properties of the nutritional value of products, it depends on their appearance, taste, activity and composition of enzymes. The digestibility of products is influenced by a person's well-being, age, nutritional conditions and many other factors.

The digestibility of proteins with mixed nutrition is 84.5%, carbohydrates - 94.5, fats - 94%.

Only the food digested by the body is used to restore energy. Some food products have a low energy value, but are indispensable in nutrition, as they are a supplier of vitamins and microelements important for the body.

Taste products (spices, seasonings) do not have a high energy value, but they improve the taste, smell, thereby facilitating absorption.

The good quality of food products is characterized by organoleptic and chemical indicators. Food products must be harmless and safe. Food products should not contain harmful compounds (lead, mercury), toxic (poisonous) substances, pathogenic microbes, impurities, glass, etc.

The persistence of food products is the ability to maintain quality without significant loss for a certain period of time established by the standard or other regulatory documents.

The preservation of food products is closely related to safety, especially perishable ones (milk, fish, meat).

By quality, food products are divided into classes:

- Goods suitable for their intended use. These are standard goods that are subject to sale without restrictions;

- goods conditionally suitable for their intended use. Conditionally suitable goods can be sold at reduced prices, sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed;

- goods are dangerous, unsuitable for their intended use. These are non-liquid wastes that are not subject to sale and cannot be sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed. Subject to certain rules, they can be destroyed or disposed of.

In wholesale and retail trade, goods are sold that are suitable for their intended use.

When assessing the quality of food products, various deviations from the specified or expected requirements (defects) can be identified.

Defects in goods can be minor, major or critical.

Minor ones do not significantly affect consumer properties, safety, shelf life of products, these may be deviations in the size and shape of vegetables and fruits. Significant defects worsen the appearance, affect the use of the product for its intended purpose. For example, cracks, tears on the crust of bread; such bread is unacceptable for sale, but can be used for other purposes. Goods with critical defects are not allowed for sale (bombing of canned food).

Defects can be obvious and hidden. For latent defects, there are no rules, methods and means of detection, or their use is inappropriate.

Defects in goods may be repairable or irreparable. Removable defects are defects, after the elimination of which the product can be used for its intended purpose (cleaning the yellowed edge of the butter).

Fatal defects cannot be eliminated (moldy smell of bread).

Quality gradation- consistent division of goods into classes, varieties, categories, etc. in accordance with established quality requirements.

Tasting method- an assessment of quality indicators obtained as a result of testing food products and perfumes.

Single quality indicator- characterizes one of the properties that make up the quality of the product.

Product quality- a set of product characteristics that determine the degree of its ability to satisfy established and implied needs;

The set of consumer properties of the goods (GOST R 51303-99).

Quality management— coordinated activities to direct and control the organization with regard to quality.

Methods for determining product quality indicators- methods by which the quantitative values ​​of the quality indicators of the goods are determined.

Flaw- non-compliance of the goods with the mandatory requirements established by law or in the manner prescribed by it, or the terms of contracts, or the purposes for which goods of this kind are usually used, or the purposes of which the seller was informed by the consumer at the conclusion of the contract, or a sample and (or) description when selling goods according to the sample and (or) according to the description.

Quality assurance— part of quality management aimed at creating confidence that quality requirements will be met.

Organoleptic method- is based on the use of information obtained as a result of the analysis of sensations and perceptions using the human senses - sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste.

Quality planning— part of quality management aimed at establishing quality objectives and determining the necessary operational processes of the product life cycle and the corresponding resources to achieve quality objectives.

Product quality indicator- a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a product, considered in accordance with certain conditions of its operation or consumption.

Quality Policy— the overall intentions and direction of the organization in the field of quality, formally formulated by top management.

Consumer indicator of product quality- a quantitative characteristic of one or more consumer properties of a product, considered in accordance with the conditions of its consumption.

Sensory analysis- used to assess the quality of food products in determining the color, taste, smell, texture of food products.

Product type- gradation of goods of a certain type in terms of quality and (or) the presence of defects established in regulatory documents.

Major defect of the product- an irreparable defect or a defect that cannot be eliminated without disproportionate costs or time, or has been identified repeatedly, or reappears after its elimination, or other similar shortcomings.

Product quality requirements- the expression of certain requirements in the form of quantitatively or qualitatively established norms of individual characteristics of the goods, which creates the possibility of checking the quality of the goods when used for their intended purpose.

Quality control— part of quality management aimed at meeting quality requirements.

Product quality level- a relative characteristic of the quality of the goods, obtained by comparing the values ​​of the quality indicators of the evaluated goods with the corresponding indicators of the base sample (base values).

Deterioration of the quality of goods- a decrease in at least one of the indicators characterizing the quality of the goods, caused by defects in raw materials, defects in the material or product, damage, as well as a violation of production technology, storage conditions, transportation and operation rules.

Formation of product quality– establishment, provision and support of the required level of product quality at all stages of its life cycle: production, delivery, storage and consumption.

expert method- determination of quality indicators based on the opinions of qualified specialists - experts. They are used in cases where quality indicators cannot be determined by other methods due to insufficient information, the need to develop special technical means, etc.

Express method- determination of quality indicators and other characteristics of goods using simple, accelerated methods in a shorter time than with conventional methods.

The quality of the goods is one of the fundamental characteristics that have a decisive influence on the creation of consumer preferences and the formation of competitiveness.

The quality of goods is a set of characteristics of an object related to its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs.

Requirements for the quality of goods are established at the stages of design and development, provided with logistics, development and organization of production, working and final control, storage and sale.

Before release to the consumer or operation, the quality requirements are evaluated according to the norms regulated by the standards and specifications, or in accordance with the requests of consumers.

The regulatory documents establish requirements for the properties and indicators that determine the quality.

Properties and quality indicators

Property - an objective feature of a product (or product), which manifests itself during its creation, evaluation, storage and operation.

A quality indicator is a quantitative and qualitative expression of the properties of a product (or product).

The classification of quality indicators and their values ​​is shown in fig. one.

Figure 1. - Classification of quality indicators:

Single indicators - indicators designed to express simple properties of goods. For example, single indicators include color, shape, integrity, etc.

Complex indicators - indicators designed to express the complex properties of goods. So, the strength of building materials is a complex indicator, characterized through a number of single ones: chemical composition, porosity, density, etc.

Integral indicators - indicators defined as the ratio of the total beneficial effect from the use of products for their intended purpose to the costs of development, production, sale, storage and consumption. Basic indicators - indicators taken as a basis for a comparative description of quality indicators. GOSTs for various building materials can serve as an example of a base indicator.

Defining indicators - indicators that are crucial in assessing the quality of goods. These include many organoleptic indicators:

• - appearance, color of all consumer goods, taste and smell of food products;
• - physical and chemical indicators - in building materials - strength, frost resistance, water absorption, thermal conductivity, etc.

All of these indicators have certain values, which are divided into the following types: optimal, actual, regulated, limiting and relative.

The optimal value of the indicator is the value that allows achieving the most complete satisfaction of part of the needs that this indicator determines.

So, the optimal value of the indicator "appearance" of building materials is characterized by typical and characteristic of this building material form, color, clean and dry surface without damage. Quite often, the optimal value is used as a norm established by standards and specifications. The optimal value of the indicator is the most desirable, but in practice it is not always acceptable, therefore, when assessing the quality, the actual value of the quality indicator is determined.

The actual value of the indicator is the value determined by its single or multiple measurement. So, in laboratory work on building materials, you determined some indicators (shrinkage) and each sample had its own. The results obtained are actual shrinkage values.

Regulated value - the value established by the current regulatory documents.

Limit value - the value of the quality indicator, the excess or decrease of which is regulated as a non-compliance with the current regulatory document.

This value can be the minimum, maximum, or range value. At the minimum limit value, a regulated value is set - no less, at the maximum - no more, and with a range value - no less and no more.

The minimum limit value of the indicators is applied in cases where the indicator contributes to quality improvement.

The maximum limit is used for indicators that degrade quality if the limits are set too high.

Range limits are set when both raising and lowering the specified limits cause quality degradation.

The relative value of an indicator is a value defined as the ratio of the actual value of an indicator to the base or regulated value of the same indicator.

For example, the actual value of the fat content of butter is 83%, and the base value is 82.5%.

Then the relative value of the indicator is:

83 / 82,5 = 1,06.

The quality level of goods is a relative characteristic determined by comparing the actual values ​​of indicators with the base values ​​of the same indicators.

When assessing the quality level, indicators of sample standards can be used as basic indicators, which can reflect the quality requirements of the best world or domestic products, as well as consumer requirements.

The technical level of quality is a relative comparative characteristic of the technical improvement of goods, based on a comparison of the actual values ​​of indicators characterizing technical excellence with their base indicator, which reflects advanced scientific and technological achievements in this area. The technical level of quality is usually used to characterize complex technical goods.

Thus, the quality of goods is a set of properties and indicators that determine the satisfaction of various needs in accordance with the purpose of specific goods.